The Network Of Knowledge

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The present physical Earth: The aim here is to present a snapshot, a cross-section of the physical Earth in time, as it appears at present.
Of course this snapshot should be presented in the context of the information in the modules on "The Origin and History of the Universe" and "The Origin and History of the Earth".

From Wikipedia:
Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life.
According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence, Earth formed over 4.5 billion years ago.
Earth's gravity interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the Moon, Earth's only natural satellite.
Earth orbits around the Sun in 365.26 days, a period known as an Earth year.
During this time, Earth rotates about its axis about 366.26 times.

Earth's axis of rotation is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing seasons on Earth.
The gravitational interaction between Earth and the Moon causes tides, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis and gradually slows its rotation.
Earth is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest and most massive of the four terrestrial planets.

Earth's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over many millions of years.
About 71% of Earth's surface is covered with water, mostly by oceans.
The remaining 29% is land consisting of continents and islands that together contain many lakes, rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere.
The majority of Earth's polar regions are covered in ice, including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack.
Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates the Earth's magnetic field and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics.

Within the first billion years of Earth's history, life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth's atmosphere and surface, leading to the proliferation of anaerobic and, later, aerobic organisms.
Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1 billion years ago.
Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive.
In the history of life on Earth, biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events.
Over 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct.
Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been described.
Over 7.6 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and natural resources for their survival.
Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures; politically, the world has around 200 sovereign states.

Contents
1 Name and etymology
2 Chronology
2.1 Formation
2.2 Geological history
2.3 Origin of life and evolution
2.4 Future
3 Physical characteristics
3.1 Shape
3.2 Chemical composition
3.3 Internal structure
3.4 Heat
3.5 Tectonic plates
3.6 Surface
3.7 Hydrosphere
3.8 Atmosphere
3.9 Gravitational field
3.10 Magnetic field
4 Orbit and rotation
4.1 Rotation
4.2 Orbit
4.3 Axial tilt and seasons
5 Habitability
5.1 Biosphere
5.2 Natural resources and land use
5.3 Natural and environmental hazards
6 Human geography
7 Moon
8 Asteroids and artificial satellites
9 Cultural and historical viewpoint

Figure of the Earth From Wikipedia:
Figure of the Earth is a term of art in geodesy that refers to the size and shape used to model Earth.
The size and shape it refers to depend on context, including the precision needed for the model.
The sphere is an approximation of the figure of the Earth that is satisfactory for many purposes.
Several models with greater accuracy have been developed so that coordinate systems can serve the precise needs of navigation, surveying, cadastre, land use, and various other concerns.

Contents
1 Motivation
2 Models
2.1 Sphere
2.2 Ellipsoid of revolution
2.3 Geoid
2.4 Other shapes
3 Earth rotation and Earth's interior
4 Global and regional gravity field
5 Volume

For more information, see Figure of the Earth .
Structure of the Earth From Wikipedia:
The internal structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells: an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous asthenosphere and mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core.
Scientific understanding of the internal structure of the Earth is based on observations of topography and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanoes or volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through the Earth, measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields of the Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep interior.

Contents
1 Mass
2 Structure
2.1 Crust
2.2 Mantle
2.3 Core

For more information, see Structure of the Earth .
Earth's internal heat budget From Wikipedia:
Earth's internal heat budget is fundamental to the thermal history of the Earth.
The flow of heat from Earth's interior to the surface is estimated at 47+/- 2 terawatts (TW) and comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts: the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust, and the primordial heat left over from the formation of the Earth.

Earth's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives plate tectonics.
Despite its geological significance, this heat energy coming from Earth's interior is actually only 0.03% of Earth's total energy budget at the surface, which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation.
The insolation that eventually, after reflection, reaches the surface penetrates only several tens of centimeters on the daily cycle and only several tens of meters on the annual cycle.
This renders solar radiation minimally relevant for internal processes.

Contents
1 Heat and early estimate of Earth's age
2 Global internal heat flow
3 Radiogenic heat
4 Primordial heat
5 Heat flow and tectonic plates

For more information, see Earth's internal heat budget .
Plate tectonics From Wikipedia:
Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the Greek: τεκτονικός "pertaining to building") is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of seven large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth's lithosphere, since tectonic processes began on Earth between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago.
The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century.
The geoscientific community accepted plate-tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is broken into tectonic plates.
The Earth's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates.
Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform.
Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries (or faults).
The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.

Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust.
Along convergent boundaries, subduction, or one plate moving under another, carries the lower one down into the mantle; the material lost is roughly balanced by the formation of new (oceanic) crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading.
In this way, the total surface of the lithosphere remains the same.
This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle.
Earlier theories, since disproven, proposed gradual shrinking (contraction) or gradual expansion of the globe.

Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth's lithosphere has greater mechanical strength than the underlying asthenosphere.
Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection; that is, the slow creeping motion of Earth's solid mantle.
Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from spreading ridges due to variations in topography (the ridge is a topographic high) and density changes in the crust (density increases as newly formed crust cools and moves away from the ridge).
At subduction zones the relatively cold, dense crust is "pulled" or sinks down into the mantle over the downward convecting limb of a mantle cell.
Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by tidal forces of the Sun and Moon.
The relative importance of each of these factors and their relationship to each other is unclear, and still the subject of much debate.

Contents
1 Key principles
2 Types of plate boundaries
3 Driving forces of plate motion
3.1 Driving forces related to mantle dynamics
3.2 Driving forces related to gravity
3.3 Driving forces related to Earth rotation
3.4 Relative significance of each driving force mechanism
4 Development of the theory
4.1 Summary
4.2 Continental drift
4.3 Floating continents, paleomagnetism, and seismicity zones
4.4 Mid-oceanic ridge spreading and convection
4.5 Magnetic striping
4.6 Definition and refining of the theory
4.7 Plate Tectonics Revolution
5 Implications for biogeography
6 Plate reconstruction
6.1 Defining plate boundaries
6.2 Past plate motions
6.3 Formation and break-up of continents
7 Current plates
8 Other celestial bodies (planets, moons)
8.1 Venus
8.2 Mars
8.3 Icy satellites
8.4 Exoplanets

For more information, see Plate tectonics.
Lithosphere From Wikipedia:
A lithosphere (Ancient Greek: λίθος [lithos] for "rocky", and σφαίρα [sphaira] for "sphere") is the rigid, outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet, or natural satellite, that is defined by its rigid mechanical properties.
On Earth, it is composed of the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands of years or greater.
The outermost shell of a rocky planet, the crust, is defined on the basis of its chemistry and mineralogy.

Contents
1 Earth's lithosphere
1.1 History of the concept
1.2 Types
1.2.1 Oceanic lithosphere
1.2.2 Subducted lithosphere
2 Mantle xenoliths

For more information, see Lithosphere .
Landform From Wikipedia:
A landform is a natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth or other planetary body.
Landforms together make up a given terrain, and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography.
Typical landforms include hills, mountains, plateaus, canyons, and valleys, as well as shoreline features such as bays, peninsulas, and seas, including submerged features such as mid-ocean ridges, volcanoes, and the great ocean basins.

Contents
1 Physical characteristics
2 Hierarchy of classes
3 Recent developments

For more information, see Landform .
Hydrosphere From Wikipedia:
The hydrosphere (from Greek ὕδωρ hydōr, "water" and σφαῖρα sphaira, "sphere") is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet or natural satellite.
Although the Earth's hydrosphere has been around for longer than 4 billion years, it continues to change in size.
This is caused by seafloor spreading and continental drift, which rearranges the land and ocean.

It has been estimated that there are 1,386 million cubic kilometres (333,000,000 cubic miles) of water on Earth.
This includes water in liquid and frozen forms in groundwater, oceans, lakes and streams. Saltwater accounts for 97.5% of this amount, whereas fresh water accounts for only 2.5%. Of this fresh water, 68.9% is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the Arctic, the Antarctic and mountain glaciers; 30.8% is in the form of fresh groundwater; and only 0.3% of the fresh water on Earth is in easily accessible lakes, reservoirs and river systems.

The total mass of the Earth's hydrosphere is about 1.4 × 1018 tonnes, which is about 0.023% of Earth's total mass.
At any given time, about 20 × 1012 tonnes of this is in the form of water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere (for practical purposes, 1 cubic meter of water weighs one tonne).
Approximately 71% of Earth's surface, an area of some 361 million square kilometers (139.5 million square miles), is covered by ocean.
The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5%).

Contents
1 Water cycle
2 Recharging reservoirs
3 Specific fresh water availability

For more information, see Hydrosphere .
Atmosphere of Earth From Wikipedia:
The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity.
The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).

By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases.
Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere.
Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.

The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15×1018 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface.
The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space.
The Kármán line, at 100 km (62 mi), or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space.
Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi).
Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition.

The study of Earth's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science (aerology).
Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann.

Contents
1 Composition
2 Stratification
2.1 Exosphere
2.2 Thermosphere
2.3 Mesosphere
2.4 Stratosphere
2.5 Troposphere
2.6 Other layers
3 Physical properties
3.1 Pressure and thickness
3.2 Temperature and speed of sound
3.3 Density and mass
4 Optical properties
4.1 Scattering
4.2 Absorption
4.3 Emission
4.4 Refractive index
5 Circulation
6 Evolution of Earth's atmosphere
6.1 Earliest atmosphere
6.2 Second atmosphere
6.3 Third atmosphere
6.4 Air pollution
7 Images from space

For more information, see Atmosphere of Earth .
Pedosphere From Wikipedia:
The pedosphere (from Greek πέδον pedon "soil" or "earth" and σφαῖρα sphaira "sphere") is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes.
It exists at the interface of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
The pedosphere is the skin of the Earth and only develops when there is a dynamic interaction between the atmosphere (air in and above the soil), biosphere (living organisms), lithosphere (unconsolidated regolith and consolidated bedrock) and the hydrosphere (water in, on and below the soil).
The pedosphere is the foundation of terrestrial life on Earth.

The pedosphere acts as the mediator of chemical and biogeochemical flux into and out of these respective systems and is made up of gaseous, mineralic, fluid and biologic components.
The pedosphere lies within the Critical Zone, a broader interface that includes vegetation, pedosphere, groundwater aquifer systems, regolith and finally ends at some depth in the bedrock where the biosphere and hydrosphere cease to make significant changes to the chemistry at depth.
As part of the larger global system, any particular environment in which soil forms is influenced solely by its geographic position on the globe as climatic, geologic, biologic and anthropogenic changes occur with changes in longitude and latitude.

The pedosphere lies below the vegetative cover of the biosphere and above the hydrosphere and lithosphere.
The soil forming process (pedogenesis) can begin without the aid of biology but is significantly quickened in the presence of biologic reactions.
Soil formation begins with the chemical and/or physical breakdown of minerals to form the initial material that overlies the bedrock substrate.
Biology quickens this by secreting acidic compounds (dominantly fulvic acids[disputed (for: being meaningless in this context) – discuss]) that help break rock apart.
Particular biologic pioneers are lichen, mosses and seed bearing plants, but many other inorganic reactions take place that diversify the chemical makeup of the early soil layer.
Once weathering and decomposition products accumulate, a coherent soil body allows the migration of fluids both vertically and laterally through the soil profile, causing ion exchange between solid, fluid and gaseous phases.
As time progresses, the bulk geochemistry of the soil layer will deviate away from the initial composition of the bedrock and will evolve to a chemistry that reflects the type of reactions that take place in the soil.

Contents
1 Lithosphere
2 Weathering and dissolution of minerals
3 Biosphere
4 Redox conditions in wetland soils
5 Atmosphere
6 Soil in forests
7 Soil in the tropics
8 Soil in grasslands and deserts

For more information, see Pedosphere .
Weather From Wikipedia:
Weather is the state of the atmosphere, describing for example the degree to which it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy.
Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere, the troposphere, just below the stratosphere. Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time.
When used without qualification, "weather" is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth.

Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place and another.
These differences can occur due to the sun's angle at any particular spot, which varies with latitude.
The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations: the Hadley Cell, the Ferrel Cell, the Polar Cell, and the jet stream.
Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow.
Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year.
On Earth's surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (−40 °F to 100 °F) annually.
Over thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth, thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change.

Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences.
Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes, as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant.
Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location.
The Earth's weather system is a chaotic system; as a result, small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole.
Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history, and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns.

Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth.
A famous landmark in the Solar System, Jupiter's Great Red Spot, is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years.
However, weather is not limited to planetary bodies.
A star's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System.
The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind.

Contents
1 Causes
2 Shaping the planet Earth
3 Effect on humans
3.1 Effects on populations
4 Forecasting
5 Modification
6 Microscale meteorology
7 Extremes on Earth
8 Extraterrestrial within the Solar System
9 Space weather

For more information, see Weather .
Climate From Wikipedia:
On Earth, interactions between the five parts of the climate system produce our daily weather and long-term averages of weather are called "climate".
Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation.
The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, and altitude, as well as nearby water bodies and their currents.

In a broader sense, the "climate" of a region is the general state of the climate system at that location.

Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation.
The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification.
The Thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it.
The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region.

Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates.
Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores, and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral.
Climate models are mathematical models of past, present and future climates.
Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors; recent warming is discussed in global warming.
Global warming results in redistributions.
For example, "a 3°C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m in elevation.
Therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones".

Contents
1 Definition
2 Climate classification
2.1 Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic
2.2 Köppen
2.3 Thornthwaite
3 Record
3.1 Modern
3.2 Paleoclimatology
4 Climate change
4.1 Climate models

For more information, see Climate .
Gravity of Earth From Wikipedia:
The gravity of Earth, denoted by g, is the net acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the combined effect of gravitation (from d istribution of mass within Earth) and the centrifugal force (from the Earth's rotation).

In SI units this acceleration is measured in metres per second squared (in symbols, m/s2 or m·s−2) or equivalently in newtons per kilogram (N/kg or N·kg−1).
Near Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.8 m/s2, which means that, ignoring the effects of air resistance, the speed of an object falling freely will increase by about 9.8 metres per second every second.
This quantity is sometimes referred to informally as little g (in contrast, the gravitational constant G is referred to as big G).

The precise strength of Earth's gravity varies depending on location.
The nominal "average" value at Earth's surface, known as standard gravity is, by definition, 9.80665 m/s2.
This quantity is denoted variously as gn, ge (though this sometimes means the normal equatorial value on Earth, 9.78033 m/s2), g0, gee, or simply g (which is also used for the variable local value).

The weight of an object on Earth's surface is the downwards force on that object, given by Newton's second law of motion, or F = ma (force = mass × acceleration).
Gravitational acceleration contributes to the total gravity acceleration, but other factors, such as the rotation of Earth, also contribute, and, therefore, affect the weight of the object.
Gravity does not normally include the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, which are accounted for in terms of tidal effects.
It is a vector (physics) quantity, whose direction coincides with a plumb bob.

Contents
1 Variation in magnitude
1.1 Conventional value
1.2 Latitude
1.3 Altitude
1.4 Depth
1.5 Local topography and geology
1.6 Other factors
2 Variation in direction
3 Comparative values worldwide
4 Mathematical models
4.1 Latitude model
4.2 Free air correction
4.3 Slab correction
5 Estimating g from the law of universal gravitation

For more information, see Gravity of Earth .
Earth's magnetic field From Wikipedia:
Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is the magnetic field that extends from the Earth's interior out into space, where it interacts with the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun.
The magnetic field is generated by electric currents due to the motion of convection currents of molten iron in the Earth's outer core: these convection currents are caused by heat escaping from the core, a natural process called a geodynamo.
The magnitude of the Earth's magnetic field at its surface ranges from 25 to 65 microteslas (0.25 to 0.65 gauss).
As an approximation, it is represented by a field of a magnetic dipole currently tilted at an angle of about 11 degrees with respect to Earth's rotational axis, as if there were a bar magnet placed at that angle at the center of the Earth.
The North geomagnetic pole, currently located near Greenland in the northern hemisphere, is actually the south pole of the Earth's magnetic field, and conversely.

While the North and South magnetic poles are usually located near the geographic poles, they slowly and continuously move over geological time scales, but sufficiently slowly for ordinary compasses to remain useful for navigation.
However, at irregular intervals averaging several hundred thousand years, the Earth's field reverses and the North and South Magnetic Poles respectively, abruptly switch places.
These reversals of the geomagnetic poles leave a record in rocks that are of value to paleomagnetists in calculating geomagnetic fields in the past.
Such information in turn is helpful in studying the motions of continents and ocean floors in the process of plate tectonics.

The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent of the Earth's magnetic field in space.
It extends several tens of thousands of kilometers into space, protecting the Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the upper atmosphere, including the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

Contents
1 Significance
2 Characteristics
2.1 Description
2.1.1 Intensity
2.1.2 Inclination
2.1.3 Declination
2.2 Geographical variation
2.3 Dipolar approximation
2.4 Magnetic poles
3 Magnetosphere
4 Time dependence
4.1 Short-term variations
4.2 Secular variation
4.3 Magnetic field reversals
4.4 Earliest appearance
4.5 Future
5 Physical origin
5.1 Earth's core and the geodynamo
5.2 Numerical models
5.3 Currents in the ionosphere and magnetosphere
6 Measurement and analysis
6.1 Detection
6.2 Crustal magnetic anomalies
6.3 Statistical models
6.3.1 Spherical harmonics
6.3.2 Radial dependence
6.3.3 Global models
7 Biomagnetism

For more information, see Earth's magnetic field .
Magnetosphere From Wikipedia:
A magnetosphere is a region of space surrounding an astronomical object in which charged particles are manipulated or affected by that object's magnetic field.
It is created by a planet having an active interior dynamo.

In the space environment close to a planetary body, the magnetic field resembles a magnetic dipole.
Farther out, field lines can be significantly distorted by the flow of electrically conducting plasma, as emitted from the Sun or a nearby star. e.g. the solar wind.
Planets having active magnetospheres, like the Earth, are capable of mitigating or blocking the effects of solar radiation or cosmic radiation, that also protects all living organisms from potentially detrimental and dangerous consequences.
This is studied under the specialized scientific subjects of plasma physics, space physics and aeronomy.

Contents
1 History
2 Structure and behavior
3 Structure
3.1 Bow shock
3.2 Magnetosheath
3.3 Magnetopause
3.4 Magnetotail
3.5 Earth's magnetosphere
3.6 Other objects

For more information, see Magnetosphere .
Earth's rotation From Wikipedia:
Earth's rotation is the rotation of Planet Earth around its own axis.
Earth rotates eastward, in prograde motion.
As viewed from the north pole star Polaris, Earth turns anticlockwise.

The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface.
This point is distinct from Earth's North Magnetic Pole.
The South Pole is the other point where Earth's axis of rotation intersects its surface, in Antarctica.

Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the Sun, but once every 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds with respect to other, distant, stars (see below).
Earth's rotation is slowing slightly with time; thus, a day was shorter in the past.
This is due to the tidal effects the Moon has on Earth's rotation.
Atomic clocks show that a modern-day is longer by about 1.7 milliseconds than a century ago, slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds.
Analysis of historical astronomical records shows a slowing trend of about 2.3 milliseconds per century since the 8th century BCE.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Empirical tests
2 Periods
2.1 True solar day
2.2 Mean solar day
2.3 Stellar and sidereal day
2.4 Angular speed
3 Changes
3.1 In rotational axis
3.2 In rotational velocity
3.2.1 Tidal interactions
3.2.2 Resonant stabilization
3.2.3 Global events
3.3 Measurement
3.4 Ancient observations
4 Origin

For more information, see Earth's rotation.
Earth's orbit From Wikipedia:
Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of 149.60 million km (92.96 million mi), and one complete orbit takes 365.256 days (1 sidereal year), during which time Earth has traveled 940 million km (584 million mi).
Earth's orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0167.
Since the Sun constitutes 99.76% of the mass of the Sun–Earth system, the center of the orbit is extremely close to the center of the Sun.

As seen from Earth, the planet's orbital prograde motion makes the Sun appear to move with respect to other stars at a rate of about 1° eastward per solar day (or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours).
Earth's orbital speed averages about 30 km/s (109044 km/h; 67756 mph), which is fast enough to cover the planet's diameter in 7 minutes and the distance to the Moon in 4 hours.

From a vantage point above the north pole of either the Sun or Earth, Earth would appear to revolve in a counterclockwise direction around the Sun.
From the same vantage point, both the Earth and the Sun would appear to rotate also in a counterclockwise direction about their respective axes.

Contents
1 History of study
2 Influence on Earth
3 Events in the orbit
4 Future

For more information, see Earth's orbit .
Axial tilt - Earth From Wikipedia:
Earth's orbital plane is known as the ecliptic plane, and Earth's tilt is known to astronomers as the obliquity of the ecliptic, being the angle between the ecliptic and the celestial equator on the celestial sphere.
It is denoted by the Greek letter ε.

Earth currently has an axial tilt of about 23.44°.
This value remains about the same relative to a stationary orbital plane throughout the cycles of axial precession.
But the ecliptic (i.e., Earth's orbit) moves due to planetary perturbations, and the obliquity of the ecliptic is not a fixed quantity.
At present, it is decreasing at a rate of about 47″ per century (see details in Short term below).

For more information, see Axial tilt - Earth .
Biosphere From Wikipedia:
The biosphere (from Greek βίος bíos "life" and σφαῖρα sphaira "sphere") also known as the ecosphere (from Greek οἶκος oîkos "environment" and σφαῖρα), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems.
It can also be termed the zone of life on Earth, a closed system (apart from solar and cosmic radiation and heat from the interior of the Earth), and largely self-regulating.
By the most general biophysiological definition, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
The biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning with a process of biopoiesis (life created naturally from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds) or biogenesis (life created from living matter), at least some 3.5 billion years ago.

In a general sense, biospheres are any closed, self-regulating systems containing ecosystems.
This includes artificial biospheres such as Biosphere 2 and BIOS-3, and potentially ones on other planets or moons.

Contents
1 Origin and use of the term
1.1 Narrow definition
2 Earth's biosphere
2.1 Age
2.2 Extent
2.3 Annual variation
3 Artificial biospheres
4 Extraterrestrial biospheres

For more information, see Biosphere .
Natural resource From Wikipedia:
Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind.
This includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, electrical properties and forces etc.
On Earth it includes sunlight, atmosphere, water, land (includes all minerals) along with all vegetation, crops and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances.

Particular areas such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva are often characterized by the biodiversity and geodiversity existent in their ecosystems.
Natural resources may be further classified in different ways.
Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be found within the environment.
Every man-made product is composed of natural resources (at its fundamental level).
A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, air, and as well as a living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form that must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, rare earth metals, petroleum, and most forms of energy.

There is much debate worldwide over natural resource allocations, this is particularly true during periods of increasing scarcity and shortages (depletion and overconsumption of resources).

Contents
1 Classification
2 Extraction
3 Depletion of resources
4 Protection
5 Management
6 Natural resources by country

For more information, see Natural resource .
Land From Wikipedia:
Land, sometimes referred to as dry land, is the solid surface of Earth that is not permanently covered by water.
The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture, habitat, and various natural resources.
Some life forms (including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals) have developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water.

Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones.

The division between land and water is a fundamental concept to humans.
The demarcation between land and water can vary by local jurisdiction and other factors.
A maritime boundary is one example of a political demarcation.
A variety of natural boundaries exist to help clearly define where water meets land.
Solid rock landforms are easier to demarcate than marshy or swampy boundaries, where there is no clear point at which the land ends and a body of water has begun.
Demarcation can further vary due to tides and weather.

Contents
1 Etymology and terminology
2 History of land on Earth
3 Area
4 Cover
5 Cultural perspectives
6 Extraterrestrial land
7 Land and climate

For more information, see Land .
Continent From Wikipedia:
A continent is one of several very large landmasses.
As of 2015 this type of landmass is known to exist only on Earth.
Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are commonly regarded as continents.
Ordered from largest in area to smallest, they are: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia.

Geologically, the continents largely correspond to areas of continental crust that are found on the continental plates.
However, some areas of continental crust are regions covered with water not usually included in the list of continents.
Zealandia is one such area (see submerged continents below).

Islands are frequently grouped with a neighbouring continent to divide all the world's land into geopolitical regions.
Under this scheme, most of the island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form a geopolitical region called Oceania.

Contents
1 Definitions and application
1.1 Extent
1.2 Separation
1.3 Number
2 Area and population
3 Other divisions
3.1 Supercontinents
3.2 Subcontinents
3.3 Submerged continents
3.4 Microcontinents
3.5 Botanical continents
4 History of continental configurations
5 History of the concept
5.1 Early concepts of the Old World continents
5.2 European arrival in the Americas
5.3 The word continent
5.4 Beyond four continents
6 Geology
7 Highest and lowest points

For more information, see Continent .
Cryosphere From Wikipedia:
The cryosphere (from the Greek κρύος kryos, "cold", "frost" or "ice" and σφαῖρα sphaira, "globe, ball") is an all-encompassing term for those portions of Earth's surface where water is in solid form, including sea ice, lake ice, river ice, snow cover, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, and frozen ground (which includes permafrost).
Thus, there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere.
The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes, clouds, precipitation, hydrology, atmospheric and oceanic circulation.
Through these feedback processes, the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes.
The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features. Cryology is the study of cryospheres.

Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Snow
1.2 Sea ice
1.3 Lake ice and river ice
1.4 Frozen ground and permafrost
1.5 Glaciers and ice sheets

For more information, see Cryosphere .
World Ocean From Wikipedia:
The World Ocean or Global Ocean (colloquially the sea or the ocean) is the interconnected system of Earth's oceanic waters, and comprises the bulk of the hydrosphere, covering 361,132,000 square kilometres (139,434,000 sq mi) (70.8%) of Earth's surface, with a total volume of roughly 1,332,000,000 cubic kilometres (320,000,000 cu mi).

Contents
1 Organization

For more information, see World Ocean .
Ocean From Wikipedia:
An ocean (from Ancient Greek Ὠκεανός, transc. Okeanós) is a body of water that composes much of a planet's hydrosphere.
On Earth, an ocean is one of the major conventional divisions of the World Ocean.
These are, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern (Antarctic), and Arctic Oceans.
The word "ocean" is often used interchangeably with "sea" in American English.
Strictly speaking, a sea is a body of water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land, though "the sea" refers also to the oceans.

Saline water covers approximately 361,000,000 km2 (139,000,000 sq mi) and is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas, with the ocean covering approximately 71% of Earth's surface and 90% of the Earth's biosphere.
The ocean contains 97% of Earth's water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5% of the World Ocean has been explored.
The total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers (320 million cu mi) with an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters (12,100 ft).

As the world ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, it is integral to life, forms part of the carbon cycle, and influences climate and weather patterns.
The World Ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the number of species that exist in the ocean is much larger, possibly over two million.
The origin of Earth's oceans is unknown; oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean eon and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life.

Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds.
The only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System.
Early in their geologic histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans.
The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, and a runaway greenhouse effect may have boiled away the global ocean of Venus.
Compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice.
Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many dwarf planets and natural satellites; notably, the ocean of the moon Europa is estimated to have over twice the water volume of Earth.
The Solar System's giant planets are also thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions.
Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of liquid water within a circumstellar habitable zone.
Ocean planets are a hypothetical type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Earth's global ocean
2.1 Oceanic divisions
2.2 Global system
2.3 Physical properties
2.4 Oceanic zones
2.5 Exploration
2.6 Oceanic maritime currents
2.7 Climate
2.8 Biology
2.9 Gases
2.10 Surface
2.11 Mixing time
2.12 Salinity
2.13 Absorption of light
2.14 Economic value
2.15 Waves and swell
3 Extraterrestrial oceans
3.1 Planets
3.2 Natural satellites
3.3 Dwarf planets and trans-Neptunian objects
3.4 Extrasolar
3.5 Non-water surface liquids

For more information, see Ocean .
Groundwater From Wikipedia:
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations.
A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water.
The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table.
Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands.
Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells.
The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology.

Typically, groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers, but, in the technical sense, it can also contain soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water.
Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults.
It is likely that much of Earth's subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances.
Groundwater may not be confined only to Earth. T
he formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have been influenced by groundwater.
There is also evidence that liquid water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiter's moon Europa.

Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water.
Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies.
For example, groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the United States, and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all the states.
Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, including the Great Lakes.
Many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater.

Polluted groundwater is less visible and more difficult to clean up than pollution in rivers and lakes.
Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land.
Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and garbage landfills, excessive fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process wastewater from mines, industrial fracking, oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems.

Contents
1 Aquifers
2 Water cycle
3 Issues
3.1 Overview
3.2 Overdraft
3.3 Subsidence
3.4 Seawater intrusion
3.5 Pollution
4 Regulations
4.1 United States
4.2 India
4.3 Canada
4.4 Iran

For more information, see Groundwater .
Mountain range From Wikipedia:
A mountain range or hill range is a series of mountains or hills ranged in a line and connected by high ground.
A mountain system or mountain belt is a group of mountain ranges with similarity in form, structure, and alignment that have arisen from the same cause, usually an orogeny.
Mountain ranges are formed by a variety of geological processes, but most of the significant ones on Earth are the result of plate tectonics.
Mountain ranges are also found on many planetary mass objects in the Solar System and are likely a feature of most terrestrial planets.

Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys.
Individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology.
They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, and volcanic landforms resulting in a variety of rock types.

Contents
1 Major ranges
2 Divisions and categories
3 Climate
4 Erosion
5 Extraterrestrial "Montes"

For more information, see Mountain range .
Future of Earth From Wikipedia:
The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences.
These include the chemistry at Earth's surface, the rate of cooling of the planet's interior, the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System, and a steady increase in the Sun's luminosity.
An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans, such as climate engineering, which could cause significant changes to the planet.
The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years.
In turn, technology may result in the extinction of humanity, leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes.

Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years, random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere, which can result in mass extinctions.
These include impacts by comets or asteroids, and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion, called a supernova, within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun.
Other large-scale geological events are more predictable.
Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end.
These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession of the Earth's orbit.
As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle, plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250–350 million years.
Some time in the next 1.5–4.5 billion years, the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations, with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90°.

The luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase, resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth.
This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals, which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
In about 600 million years from now, the level of carbon dioxide will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees.
Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method, allowing them to persist at carbon dioxide concentrations as low as 10 parts per million.
However, the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether.
The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life, since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth.

In about one billion years, the solar luminosity will be 10% higher than at present.
This will cause the atmosphere to become a "moist greenhouse", resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans.
As a likely consequence, plate tectonics will come to an end, and with them the entire carbon cycle.
Following this event, in about 2–3 billion years, the planet's magnetic dynamo may cease, causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere.
Four billion years from now, the increase in the Earth's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect, heating the surface enough to melt it.
By that point, all life on the Earth will be extinct.
The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years, after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded beyond the planet's current orbit.

Contents
1 Human influence
2 Random events
3 Orbit and rotation
3.1 Glaciation
3.2 Obliquity
4 Geodynamics
4.1 Continental drift
4.1.1 Introversion
4.1.2 Extroversion
4.1.3 Supercontinent
4.2 Solidification of the outer core
5 Solar evolution
5.1 Climate impact
5.2 Loss of oceans
5.3 Red giant stage
5.4 Post-red giant stage

For more information, see Future of Earth .

For more information, see
The Present Earth .

From Wikipedia:
Population

World population From Wikipedia:
In demographics, the world population is the total number of humans currently living, and was estimated to have reached 7.7 billion people as of April 2019.
It took over 200,000 years of human history for the world's population to reach 1 billion; and only 200 years more to reach 7 billion.

The world population has experienced continuous growth following the Great Famine of 1315–1317 and the end of the Black Death in 1350, when it was near 370 million.
The highest global population growth rates, with increases of over 1.8% per year, occurred between 1955 and 1975—peaking to 2.1% between 1965 and 1970.
The growth rate declined to 1.2% between 2010 and 2015 and is projected to decline further in the course of the 21st century.
However, the global population is still increasing and is projected to reach about 10 billion in 2050 and more than 11 billion in 2100.

Total annual births were highest in the late 1980s at about 139 million, and as of 2011 were expected to remain essentially constant at a level of 135 million, while deaths numbered 56 million per year and were expected to increase to 80 million per year by 2040.
The median age of the world's population was estimated to be 30.4 years in 2018.

Contents
1 Population by region
1.1 Population by continent
2 History
2.1 Ancient and Post-classical history
2.2 Modern history
2.3 Milestones by the billions
3 Global demographics
4 Largest populations by country
4.1 10 most populous countries
4.2 Most densely populated countries
5 Fluctuation
5.1 Population growth by region
5.2 Past population
5.3 Projections
6 Mathematical approximations
6.1 Years for world population to double
7 Overpopulation
7.1 Predictions of scarcity
7.2 Environmental impacts
7.3 Population control
8 Number of humans who have ever lived

For more information, see World population .
List of countries and dependencies by population From Wikipedia:
This is a list of countries and dependent territories by population.
It includes sovereign states, inhabited dependent territories and, in some cases, constituent countries of sovereign states, with inclusion within the list being primarily based on the ISO standard ISO 3166-1.
For instance, the United Kingdom is considered as a single entity, while the constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands are considered separately.
In addition, this list includes certain states with limited recognition not found in ISO 3166-1.

Also given in percent is each country's population compared with the population of the world, which the United Nations estimates at 7.72 billion as of today.

Contents
1 Method
2 Sovereign states and dependencies by population

For more information, see List of countries and dependencies by population .
List of urban areas by population From Wikipedia:
This is a list of contiguous urban areas of the world ranked according to population.
Figures have been taken from two sources: Demographia's "World Urban Areas" study, and from citypopulation.de, created by Thomas Brinkhoff of the Institut für Angewandte Photogrammetrie und Geoinformatik.

Contents
1 Definitions and issues
2 Urban areas (Top 100)
3 See also
4 Number of urban areas by country in 2016

For more information, see List of urban areas by population .
List of sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate From Wikipedia:
This is a list of all sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate (TFR): the expected number of children born per woman in her child-bearing years.

Contents
1 Methodology
2 Country ranking by verified TFR and estimate
3 Country ranking and comparison of TFR by year
3.1 1950 and 2015
3.2 1960 and 2015
3.3 1970 and 2014
4 Country ranking by TFR forecast
5 United Nations total fertility rate estimates

For more information, see List of sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate .
List of countries and dependencies by population density From Wikipedia:
This is a list of countries and dependent territories ranked by population density, measured by the number of human inhabitants per square kilometer, and also sortable by area and by population.

The list includes sovereign states and self-governing dependent territories based upon the ISO standard ISO 3166-1.
The list also includes but does not rank unrecognized but de facto independent countries.
The figures in the following table are based on areas including inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers).

Figures used in this article are mainly based on the latest censuses and official estimates or projections.
Where these are not available, projections provided by the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs are used.

Contents
1 Main table
2 Density of the most populous countries

For more information, see List of countries and dependencies by population density .
List of countries by population growth rate From Wikipedia:
This article includes a table of countries and self-governing dependent territories by annual population growth rate.

Methodology
The table below shows annual population growth rate history and projections for various areas, countries, regions and sub-regions from various sources for various time periods.

The right-most column shows a projection for the time period shown using the medium fertility variant.
Preceding columns show actual history.
The number shown is the average annual growth rate for the period.

Population is based on the de facto definition of population, which counts all residents regardless of legal status or citizenship—except for refugees not permanently settled in the country of asylum, who are generally considered part of the population of the country of origin.
This means that population growth in this table includes net changes from immigration and emigration.
For a table of natural increase, see List of countries by natural increase.

For more information, see List of countries by population growth rate .
Projections of population growth From Wikipedia:
Projections of population growth established in 2017 predict that the human population is likely to keep growing until 2100, reaching an estimated 8.6 billion in 2030, 9.8 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion by 2100, while the 7 billion milestone was reached in 2011.
As the demographic transition follows its course worldwide, the population will age significantly, with most countries outside Africa trending towards a rectangular age pyramid.

The world population is currently growing by approximately 83 million people each year.
Within many populations of the world, growth rates are slowing, resulting in the global population growth rate decreasing as below:

1995 1.55%
2005 1.25%
2015 1.18%
2017 1.10%

The median estimate for future growth sees the world population reaching 8.6 billion in 2030, 9.8 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion by 2100 assuming a continuing decrease in average fertility rate from 2.5 births per woman in 2010–2015 to 2.2 in 2045–2050 and to 2.0 in 2095–2100, according to the medium-variant projection.
With longevity trending towards uniform and stable values worldwide, the main driver of future population growth is the evolution of the fertility rate.

While most scenarios still predict continued growth into the 22nd century, there is a roughly 27% chance that the total population could stabilize or begin to fall before 2100.
Longer-term speculative scenarios over the next two centuries can predict anything between runaway growth to radical decline (36.4 billion or 2.3 billion people in 2300), with the median projection showing a slight decrease followed by a stabilization around 9 billion people.

By 2070, the bulk of the world's population growth is predicted to take place in Africa: of the additional 2.4 billion people projected between 2015 and 2050, 1.3 billion will be added in Africa, 0.9 billion in Asia and only 0.2 billion in the rest of the world.
Africa's share of global population is projected to grow from 16% in 2015 to 25% in 2050 and 39% by 2100, while the share of Asia will fall from 60% in 2015 to 54% in 2050 and 44% in 2100.
The strong growth of the African population will happen regardless of the rate of decrease of fertility, because of the exceptional proportion of young people already living today.
For example, the UN projects that the population of Nigeria will surpass that of the United States by 2050.
The population of the more developed regions is slated to remain mostly unchanged, at 1.2 billion, as international migrations from high-growth regions compensate the fertility deficit of richer countries.

Contents
1 Growth regions
1.1 Projected migration to developed countries
2 World population in 2050
3 Most populous nations by 2030
4 After 2050
5 Population projections of the 101 largest metropolitan areas in the 21st century

For more information, see Projections of population growth .
Human overpopulation From Wikipedia:
Human overpopulation (or population overshoot) is when there are too many people for the environment to sustain (with food, drinkable water, breathable air, etc.).
In more scientific terms, there is overshoot when the ecological footprint of a human population in a geographical area exceeds that place's carrying capacity, damaging the environment faster than nature can repair it, potentially leading to an ecological and societal collapse.
Overpopulation could apply to the population of a specific region, or to world population as a whole.

Overpopulation can result from an increase in births, a decline in mortality rates, an increase in immigration, or an unsustainable biome and depletion of resources.
It is possible for very sparsely populated areas to be overpopulated if the area has a meagre or non-existent capability to sustain life (e.g. a desert).

Advocates of population moderation cite issues like exceeding the Earth's carrying capacity, global warming, potential or imminent ecological collapse, impact on quality of life, and risk of mass starvation or even extinction as a basis to argue for population decline.

A more controversial definition of overpopulation, as advocated by Paul Ehrlich, is a situation where a population is in the process of depleting non-renewable resources.
Under this definition, changes in lifestyle could cause an overpopulated area to no longer be overpopulated without any reduction in population, or vice versa.

Scientists suggest that the overall human impact on the environment, due to overpopulation, overconsumption, pollution, and proliferation of technology, has pushed the planet into a new geological epoch known as the Anthropocene.

Contents
1 Current population dynamics, and cause for concern
2 History
2.1 History of concern
2.2 History of population growth
3 Dangers and effects
3.1 Poverty, and infant and child mortality
3.2 Environmental impacts
3.2.1 Biodiversity loss and the Holocene extinction
3.2.2 Pollution
3.2.3 Potential ecological collapse
3.3 Depletion and destruction of resources
3.3.1 Fresh water
3.3.1.1 Water deficits
3.3.2 Land
3.3.3 Fossil fuels
3.3.4 Food
3.3.4.1 Global perspective on food supply
3.4 Africa
3.5 Asia
3.5.1 Japan
3.5.2 Population as a function of food availability
3.6 Warfare and conflict over dwindling resources
3.6.1 Criticism of this hypothesis
3.7 Other
4 Further dynamics
4.1 Causes
4.2 Demographic transition
4.3 Carrying capacity
5 Projections of population growth
5.1 Urban growth
6 Proposed solutions and mitigation measures
6.1 Reducing overpopulation
6.1.1 Education and empowerment
6.1.2 Birth regulations
6.2 Extraterrestrial settlement
6.3 Urbanization
7 Graph gallery

For more information, see Human overpopulation .
Human population planning From Wikipedia:
Human reproduction planning is the practice of intentionally controlling the rate of growth of a human population.
Historically, human population planning has been implemented with the goal of increasing the rate of human population growth.
However, in the period from the 1950s to the 1980s, concerns about global population growth and its effects on poverty, environmental degradation and political stability led to efforts to reduce human population growth rates.
More recently, some countries, such as China, Iran, and Spain, have begun efforts to increase their birth rates once again.
While population planning can involve measures that improve people's lives by giving them greater control of their reproduction, a few programs, most notably the Chinese government's "one-child policy and two-child policy", have resorted to coercive measures.

Contents
1 Types
2 Methods
2.1 Reducing population growth
2.2 Increasing population growth
3 History
3.1 Ancient times through Middle Ages
3.2 16th and 17th centuries
4 Population planning movement
5 Population planning and economics
6 Views on population planning
6.1 Population increase reductions
6.1.1 Support
6.1.2 Opposition
6.2 Natalism
7 Pro-natalist policies
7.1 Balanced birth policies
8 Modern practice by country
8.1 Australia
8.2 China
8.2.1 One-child era (1979–2015)
8.2.2 Two-child era (2015-)
8.3 India
8.4 Iran
8.5 Israel
8.6 Japan
8.7 Myanmar
8.8 Russia
8.9 Singapore
8.10 Spain
8.11 Turkey
8.12 United States
8.12.1 Natalism in the United States
8.13 Uzbekistan
9 See also
9.1 Fiction

For more information, see Human population planning .
Human sex ratio From Wikipedia:
In anthropology and demography, the human sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in a population.
More data are available for humans than for any other species, and the human sex ratio is more studied than that of any other species, but interpreting these statistics can be difficult.

Like most sexual species, the sex ratio in humans is approximately 1:1. In humans, the natural ratio between males and females at birth is slightly biased towards the male sex, being estimated to be about 1.05 or 1.06 males/per female born.
Sex imbalance may arise as a consequence of various factors including natural factors, exposure to pesticides and environmental contaminants, war casualties, sex-selective abortions, infanticides, aging, gendercide and problems with birth registration.

The sex ratio for the entire world population is 102 males to 100 females (2017 est.).
Depending upon which definition is used, between 0.1% and 1.7% of live births are intersex.

Human sex ratios, either at birth or in the population as a whole, are reported in any of four ways: the ratio of males to females, the ratio of females to males, the proportion of males, or the proportion of females.
If there are 108,000 males and 100,000 females the ratio of males to females is 1.080 and the proportion of males is 51.9%.
Scientific literature often uses the proportion of males. This article uses the ratio of males to females, unless specified otherwise.

Contents
1 Natural ratio
2 Factors affecting sex ratio in humans
2.1 Fisher's principle
2.2 Natural factors
2.3 Environmental factors
2.3.1 Effects of climate change
2.3.2 Effects of gestation environment
2.3.3 Effects of chemical pollution
2.4 Social factors
2.4.1 Early marriage and parents' age
2.4.2 Data sources and data quality issues
2.5 Economic factors
2.6 Other gestational factors
3 Gender imbalance
4 Consequences of a high sex ratio
5 History

For more information, see Human sex ratio .
List of sovereign states and dependent territories by mortality rate From Wikipedia:
This article includes two versions of the list of countries by crude mortality rate.

Contents
1 Methodology
2 Countries

For more information, see List of sovereign states and dependent territories by mortality rate .

For more information, see
World population.

From Wikipedia:
An ethnic group, or an ethnicity, is a category of people who identify with each other, usually on the basis of a presumed common genealogy or ancestry or on similarities such as common language, history, society, culture or nation.
Ethnicity is often used synonymously with the term nation, particularly in cases of ethnic nationalism, and is separate from but related to the concept of races.

Ethnicity is usually an inherited status based on the society in which one lives.
Membership of an ethnic group tends to be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland, language or dialect, symbolic systems such as religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing style, art or physical appearance.
Ethnic groups often continue to speak related languages and share a similar gene pool.
By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is sometimes possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group and become part of another (except for ethnic groups emphasizing homogeneity or racial purity as a key membership criterion).

The largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals (Han Chinese being the largest), while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals (numerous indigenous peoples worldwide).
Ethnic groups may be subdivided into subgroups known variously as tribes or clans, which over time may become separate ethnic groups themselves due to endogamy or physical isolation from the parent group.
Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity (such as Han Chinese) and may eventually merge into one single ethnicity. Whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis.

Contents
1 Terminology
2 Definitions and conceptual history
2.1 Approaches to understanding ethnicity
2.2 Ethnicity theory
3 Ethnicity and nationality
4 Ethnicity and race
5 Ethno-national conflict
6 Ethnic groups by continent
6.1 Africa
6.2 Asia
6.3 Europe
6.4 North America
6.5 South America
6.6 Oceania
6.6.1 New Zealand
6.6.1.1 Australia

List of contemporary ethnic groups From Wikipedia:
The following is a list of contemporary ethnic groups.
There has been constant debate over the classification of ethnic groups.
Membership of an ethnic group tends to be associated with shared cultural heritage, ancestry, history, homeland, language or dialect; where the term "culture" specifically includes aspects such as religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing (clothing) style, and other factors.

By the nature of the concept, ethnic groups tend to be divided into ethnic subgroups, which may themselves be or not be identified as independent ethnic groups depending on the source consulted.

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness.
You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.

Contents
1 Ethnic groups
2 Lists of ethnic groups

For more information, see List of contemporary ethnic groups .
List of ethnic groups of Africa From Wikipedia:
The ethnic groups of Africa number in the thousands, with each population generally having its own language (or dialect of a language) and culture. The ethnolinguistic groups include various Afroasiatic, Khoisan, Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan populations.

The official population count of the various ethnic groups in Africa is highly uncertain, both due to limited infrastructure to perform censuses and due to the rapid population growth.
There have also been accusations of deliberate misreporting in order to give selected ethnicities numerical superiority (as in the case of Nigeria's Hausa, Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo people).

A 2009 genetic clustering study, which genotyped 1327 polymorphic markers in various African populations, identified six ancestral clusters.
The clustering corresponded closely with ethnicity, culture and language.
A 2018 whole genome sequencing study of the world's populations observed similar clusters among the populations in Africa.
At K=9, distinct ancestral components defined the Afrosiatic-speaking populations inhabiting North Africa and Northeast Africa; the Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations in Northeast Africa and East Africa; the Ari populations in Northeast Africa; the Niger-Congo-speaking populations in West-Central Africa, West Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa; the Pygmy populations in Central Africa; and the Khoisan populations in Southern Africa.

Contents
1 Lists
1.1 By linguistic phylum
1.2 Major ethnic groups
1.3 Ethnic groups by region
1.3.1 North Africa
1.3.2 West Africa
1.3.3 Central Africa
1.3.4 East Africa
1.3.4.1 Horn of Africa
1.3.4.2 Southeast Africa
1.3.5 Southern Africa

For more information, see List of ethnic groups of Africa .
Ethnic groups in Asia From Wikipedia:
The ancestral population of modern Asian people has its origins in the two primary prehistoric settlement centers - greater Southwest Asia and from the Mongolian plateau towards Northern China.

Migrations of distinct ethnolinguistic groups have probably occurred as early as 10,000 years ago.
However, about 2.000 BCE early Iranian speaking people and Indo-Aryans have arrived in Iran and northern India.
Pressed by the Mongols, Turkic peoples subsequently migrated to the western and northern regions of the Central Asian plains.
Prehistoric migrants from South China and Southeast Asia seem to have populated East Asia, Korea and Japan in several waves, where they gradually replaced indigenous people, such as the Ainu, who are of uncertain origin.
Austroasiatic and Austronesian people establish in Southeast Asia between 5.000 and 2.000 BCE, partly merging with, but eventually displacing the indigenous Australo-Melanesians.

In terms of Asian people, there is an abundance of ethnic groups in Asia, with adaptations to the climate zones of the continent, which include Arctic, subarctic, temperate, subtropical or tropical, as well as extensive desert regions in Central and Western Asia.
The ethnic groups have adapted to mountains, deserts, grasslands, and forests, while on the coasts of Asia, resident ethnic groups have adopted various methods of harvest and transport.
The types of diversity in Asia are cultural, religious, economic and historical.

Some groups are primarily hunter-gatherers, whereas others practice transhumance (nomadic lifestyle), have been agrarian for millennia, or have adopted an industrial or urban lifestyle.
Some groups or countries in Asia are completely urban (e.g., Qatar and Singapore); the largest countries in Asia with regard to population are the People's Republic of China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Iran, Thailand, Burma, and South Korea.
Colonisation of Asian ethnic groups and states by European peoples began in the 16th century, reaching its peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (except in the former Soviet Union, which was dissolved in 1991).

Contents
1 Central Asia
2 East Asia
3 North Asia
4 South Asia
5 Southeast Asia
6 West Asia

For more information, see Ethnic groups in Asia .
Ethnic groups in Europe From Wikipedia:
The indigenous peoples of Europe are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various indigenous groups that reside in the nations of Europe.
According to the German monograph Minderheitenrechte in Europa co-edited by Pan and Pfeil (2002) there are 87 distinct peoples of Europe, of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities.
The total number of national or linguistic minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of 770 million Europeans.

There are no universally accepted and precise definitions of the terms "ethnic group" and "nationality". v In the context of European ethnography in particular, the terms ethnic group, people, nationality and ethno-linguistic group, are used as mostly synonymous, although preference may vary in usage with respect to the situation specific to the individual countries of Europe.

Contents
1 Overview
2 Linguistic classifications
3 History
3.1 Prehistoric populations
3.2 Historical populations
3.3 Historical immigration
3.4 History of European ethnography
4 Minorities
4.1 Non-indigenous minorities
5 European identity
5.1 Historical
5.2 European culture
5.3 Religion
5.4 Pan-European identity
6 European ethnic groups by sovereign state

For more information, see Ethnic groups in Europe .
Ethnic origins of people in Canada From Wikipedia:
Given here are the ethnic origins of Canadian residents (citizens, landed immigrants, and non-citizen temporary residents) as recorded by them on their 2016 census form.
The relevant census question asked for "the ethnic or cultural origins" of the respondent's ancestors and not the respondents themselves.

As data were collected by self-declaration, labels may not necessarily describe the true ancestry of respondents.
Also note that many respondents acknowledged multiple ancestries.
These people were added to the "multiple origin" total for each origin listed.
These include responses as varied as a respondent who listed eight different origins and a respondent who answered "French Canadian" (leading to him/her being counted once for "French" and once for "Canadian").
As with all self-reported data, understanding of the question may have varied from respondent to respondent.

Contents
1 Larger ethnic origins (200,000 or more individuals per group; 2016 census)
2 Smaller ethnic origins (2016 census)

For more information, see Ethnic origins of people in Canada .
Ethnic groups in Central America From Wikipedia:
Central America is a region of North America formed by six Latin American countries and one (officially) Anglo-American country, Belize.
As an isthmus it connects South America with the remainder of mainland North America, and comprises the following countries (from north to south): Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama.

The inhabitants of Central America represent a variety of ancestries, ethnic groups, and races, making the region one of the most diverse in the world.
Several of the countries have a predominance of mixed Amerindian–European, or mestizo, population, while a minority are more inhabitated by those of greater European ancestry.
Black, Asian, and Afro-Amerindian minorities are also identified regularly.
People with mestizo ancestry are the largest single group, and along with people of greater European ancestry, comprise approximately 80% of the population, or even more.

In 2007, Central America had a population of approximately 40 million persons within an area of 523,780 km², yielding an overall density of 77.3 inhabitants/km² that is not distributed evenly.
For example, Belize is larger than El Salvador in area by 1,924 km², but El Salvador has 30 times the population of Belize.
Similarly, the population of Costa Rica is greater than that of Panama, while Panama is greater in area.
Guatemala has the largest population with 13.2 million, followed by Honduras at 7.8 million.

Contents
1 Population and density
2 Mestizos
3 Europeans
4 Amerindians
4.1 Guatemala
4.2 Belize
4.3 Panama
4.4 Honduras
4.5 Nicaragua
4.6 Costa Rica
4.7 El Salvador
5 Afro Central Americans
6 Asians

For more information, see Ethnic groups in Central America .
Race and ethnicity in the United States From Wikipedia:
Race and ethnicity in the United States is a complex topic both because the United States of America has a racially and ethnically diverse population and because the country had a racist culture involving slavery and anti-miscegenation laws.
At the federal level, race and ethnicity have been categorized separately.

The most recent United States Census officially recognized five racial categories (White American, Black or African American, Native American and Alaska Native, Asian American, and Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander) as well as people of two or more races.
The Census Bureau also classified respondents as "Hispanic or Latino" or "Not Hispanic or Latino", identifying Hispanic and Latino as an ethnicity (not a race), which comprises the largest minority group in the nation.
The United States Supreme Court unanimously held that "race" is not limited to Census designations on the "race question" but extends to all ethnicities, and thus can include Jewish (which has the unique status as both an ethnicity and a religion), Arab, Hungarian, Laotian, Zulu, etc.
The Census also asked an "Ancestry Question," which covers the broader notion of ethnicity, in the 2000 Census long form and the American Community Survey; the question will return in the 2020 Census.

As of July 2016, White Americans are the racial majority.
African Americans are the largest racial minority, comprising an estimated 12.7% of the population.
Hispanic and Latino Americans are the largest ethnic minority, comprising an estimated 17.8% of the population.
The White, non-Hispanic or Latino population make up 61.3% of the nation's total, with the total White population (including White Hispanics and Latinos) being 76.9%.

White Americans are the majority in every census-defined region (Northeast, Midwest, South, West) and in every state except Hawaii, but contribute the highest proportion of the population in the Midwestern United States, at 85% per the Population Estimates Program (PEP) or 83% per the American Community Survey (ACS).
Non-Hispanic Whites make up 79% of the Midwest's population, the highest ratio of any region.
However, 35% of White Americans (whether all White Americans or non-Hispanic/Latino only) live in the South, the most of any region.

Currently, 55% of the African American population lives in the South.
A plurality or majority of the other official groups reside in the West.
The latter region is home to 42% of Hispanic and Latino Americans, 46% of Asian Americans, 48% of American Indians and Alaska Natives, 68% of Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders, 37% of the "two or more races" population (Multiracial Americans), and 46% of those self-designated as "some other race".

Contents
1 Racial and ethnic categories
1.1 Racial categories
1.2 Census Designated Ethnicities: Hispanic or Latino origin
1.3 Ethnicity, National Origin, and Cultural Groups (generally not mentioned is Census Data)
2 Social definitions of race
3 Historical trends and influences
4 Racial makeup of the U.S. population
4.1 White and European Americans
4.2 Black and African Americans
4.3 Race chart
4.4 Asian Americans
4.5 Native Americans and Alaska Natives
4.6 Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders
4.7 Middle Easterners and North Africans
4.8 Two or more races
4.8.1 Genetic admixture
4.9 Members of other races
5 Ancestry
5.1 2015 American Community Survey
5.2 Ancestry maps
5.2.1 Major ancestries
5.2.2 European American ancestries

For more information, see Race and ethnicity in the United States .
Demographics of Mexico From Wikipedia:
With a population of about 126 million in 2019, Mexico ranks as the 10th most populated country in the world.
It is the most populous Spanish-speaking country and the third-most populous in the Americas after the United States and Brazil.
Throughout most of the twentieth century Mexico's population was characterized by rapid growth.
Although this tendency has been reversed and average annual population growth over the last five years was less than 1%, the demographic transition is still in progress, and Mexico still has a large cohort of youths.
The most populous city in the country is the capital, Mexico City, with a population of 8.9 million (2016), and its metropolitan area is also the most populated with 20.1 million (2010).
Approximately 50% of the population lives in one of the 55 large metropolitan areas in the country.
In total, about 78.84% of the population of the country lives in urban areas, meaning that only 21.16% live in rural areas.

The Census Inegi in Mexico is the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI).
The National Population Council (CONAPO), is an institution under the Secretary of the Interior in charge of the analysis and research of population dynamics.
The National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples (CDI), also undertakes research and analysis of the sociodemographic and linguistic indicators of the indigenous peoples

Contents
1 Demographic dynamics
1.1 UN estimates
1.2 Structure of the population
2 Vital statistics
2.1 Registered births and deaths
2.2 Estimates
2.3 Life expectancy from 1893 to 1950
2.4 UN estimates
3 International migration
3.1 Immigration to Mexico
3.2 Emigration from Mexico
4 Cities and metropolitan areas
4.1 Settlements, cities and municipalities
4.2 Metropolitan areas
5 Ethnic groups
5.1 Mestizo
5.2 Indigenous peoples
5.3 Mexicans of European descent
5.4 Arab Mexicans
5.5 Afro-Mexicans
5.6 Asian Mexicans
5.7 Gypsies
5.8 Official censuses
5.8.1 1793 census
5.8.2 1921 census
5.8.3 The present day
6 Languages
7 Mexican nationality and citizenship
8 Religion

For more information, see Demographics of Mexico .
Demography of Australia From Wikipedia:
The demography of Australia covers basic statistics, most populous cities, ethnicity and religion.
The population of Australia is estimated to be 25,443,100 as of 26 July 2019.
Australia is the 52nd most populous country in the world and the most populous Oceanian country.
Its population is concentrated mainly in urban areas and is expected to exceed 28 million by 2030.

Australia's population has grown from an estimated population of between 300,000 and 1,000,000 at the time of British settlement in 1788 due to numerous waves of immigration during the period since.
Also due to immigration from other continents, the European component's share of the population is declining as a percentage.

Australia has an average population density of 3.3 persons per square kilometre of total land area, which makes it one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world.
This is generally attributed to the semi-arid and desert geography of much of the interior of the country.
Another factor is urbanisation, with 89% of its population living in a handful of urban areas, Australia is one of the world's most urbanised countries.
The life expectancy of Australia in 2015–2017 was 83.2 years, among the highest in the world.

Australia generally doesn't collect data on race, with the exception of Australian Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders, however the Australian census asks respondents to nominate their ancestry.

Contents 1 Cities
2 Ancestry
3 Immigration and country of birth
4 Religion
5 Language
6 Indigenous population
7 States and territories
8 Historical population
9 Other general demographic statistics
9.1 Population
9.2 Age structure
9.3 Median age
9.4 Birth rate
9.5 Death rate
9.6 Total fertility rate
9.7 Net migration rate
9.8 Population growth rate
9.9 Mother's mean age at first birth
9.10 Life expectancy at birth
9.11 Urbanisation
9.12 Sex ratio
9.13 Dependency ratios
9.14 HIV/AIDS
9.15 School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)
9.16 Unemployment, youth ages 15-24
9.17 Incarceration and punishment
9.18 Literacy
9.19 Education expenditure
9.20 Population density
9.21 Total Fertility Rate from 1850 to 1899
9.22 Crude birth rates from 1860 to 1899
9.23 Historical percent distribution of the total population by age
9.24 Historical median age of the population
9.25 Vital statistics since 1900
9.26 Life expectancy at birth from 1921 to 2015

For more information, see Demography of Australia .
Demographics of New Zealand From Wikipedia:
The demographics of New Zealand encompass the gender, ethnic, religious, geographic, and economic backgrounds of the 4.9 million people living in New Zealand.
New Zealanders, informally known as "Kiwis", predominantly live in urban areas on the North Island.
The five largest cities are Auckland (with one-third of the country's population), Christchurch (in the South Island, the largest island of the New Zealand archipelago), Wellington, Hamilton and Tauranga.
Few New Zealanders live on New Zealand's smaller islands.
Waiheke Island (near Auckland) is easily the most populated smaller island with 9,770 residents, while Great Barrier Island, the Chatham and Pitt Islands and Stewart Island each have populations below 1,000.
New Zealand is part of a realm and most people born in the realm's external territories of Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands and Niue are entitled to New Zealand passports.
In 2006, more people who identified themselves with these islands lived in New Zealand than on the Islands themselves.

The majority of New Zealand's population is of European descent (74 percent), with the indigenous Māori being the largest minority (14.9 percent), followed by Asians (11.8 percent) and non-Māori Pacific Islanders (7.4 percent).
This is reflected in immigration, with most new migrants coming from Britain and Ireland, although the numbers from Asia are increasing.
The largest Māori tribe (iwi) is Ngāpuhi with 125,601 people or 18.8 percent of the Māori population.
Auckland is the most ethnically diverse region in New Zealand with 59.3 percent identifying as Europeans, 23.1 percent as Asian, 10.7 percent as Māori and 14.6 percent as Pacific Islanders.
The ethnicity of the population aged under 18 years is considerably more diverse than the population aged 65 years or older.
Recent increases in interracial marriages have resulted in more people identifying with more than one ethnic group.

English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language are the official languages, with English predominant.
New Zealand English is mostly non-rhotic and sounds similar to Australian English, with a common exception being the centralisation of the short i.
The Māori language has undergone a process of revitalisation and is spoken by 3.7 percent of the population.
New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification.
In the adult population 14.2 percent have a bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22.4 percent have no formal qualification.
As of the 2013 census, just under half the population identify as Christians, with Hinduism and Buddhism being the most significant minority religions.
New Zealand has no state religion and just over 40 percent of the population does not have a religion.

Farming is a major occupation in New Zealand, although more people are employed as sales assistants.
Most New Zealanders earn wage or salary income, with a median personal income in 2013 of NZ$28,500.

Contents
1 Terminology
2 Population
2.1 Historical total fertility rates
2.2 Vital statistics
2.3 Current vital statistics
2.4 Population density
3 Other statistics
4 Migration
5 Ethnicity
6 Language
7 Education
8 Religion
9 Income

For more information, see Demographics of New Zealand .
Demographics of South America From Wikipedia:
South America has an estimated population of 418.7 million (as of 2017) and a rate of population growth of about 0.6% per year.

Contents
1 Population and density
2 Religion
3 Racial
3.1 Indigenous peoples
3.1.1 Argentina
3.1.2 Bolivia
3.1.3 Brazil
3.1.4 Chile
3.1.5 Colombia
3.1.6 Ecuador
3.1.7 Peru

For more information, see Demographics of South America .
List of indigenous peoples From Wikipedia:
This is a partial list of the world's indigenous / aboriginal / native people.
Indigenous peoples are any ethnic group of peoples who are considered to fall under one of the internationally recognized definitions of Indigenous peoples, such as United Nations, the International Labour Organization and the World Bank, i.e. "those ethnic groups that were indigenous to a territory prior to being incorporated into a national state, and who are politically and culturally separate from the majority ethnic identity of the state that they are a part of".

This list is grouped by region, and sub-region.
Note that a particular group may warrant listing under more than one region, either because the group is distributed in more than one region (example: Inuit in North America and eastern Russia), or there may be some overlap of the regions themselves (that is, the boundaries of each region are not always clear, and some locations may commonly be associated with more than one region).

Contents
1 Definition
2 Africa
2.1 African Great Lakes
2.2 Central Africa
2.3 Horn of Africa
2.4 Maghreb
2.5 Nile Valley
2.6 Southwestern Africa
2.7 Southeastern Africa
2.8 West Africa
3 Eurasia
3.1 Asia
3.1.1 Southwest Asia (Middle East)
3.1.2 Caucasus
3.1.3 Eurasian Steppe
3.1.4 South Asia
3.1.5 Southeast Asia
3.1.5.1 Mainland Southeast Asia (Indochina)
3.1.5.2 Maritime Southeast Asia (Indonesia)
3.1.6 East Asia
3.1.6.1 East China
3.1.6.2 North China
3.1.6.3 South China
3.1.6.4 Taiwan
3.1.6.5 Japan
3.1.7 Siberia
3.2 Europe
3.2.1 Eastern Europe
3.2.2 Northern and western Europe
4 Oceania
4.1 Australia
4.1.1 North
4.1.2 Arnhem
4.1.3 Desert
4.1.4 Torres Strait
4.1.5 Rainforest
4.1.6 Tasmania
4.2 Melanesia
4.3 Micronesia
4.4 Polynesia
5 The Americas
5.1 North America
5.1.1 Arctic
5.1.2 Subarctic
5.1.3 Pacific Northwest Coast
5.1.4 Northwest Plateau-Great Basin-California
5.1.4.1 Northwest Plateau
5.1.4.2 Great Basin
5.1.4.3 California
5.1.5 Great Plains
5.1.6 Eastern Woodlands
5.1.6.1 Northeastern Woodlands
5.1.6.2 Southeastern Woodlands
5.1.7 Southwest
5.1.8 Mesoamerica
5.1.9 Circum-Caribbean
5.1.10 Caribbean
5.2 South America
5.2.1 Circum-Caribbean (Chibcha)
5.2.2 Amazon
5.2.2.1 Guianas
5.2.3 Eastern Highlands (Brazilian Highlands)
5.2.4 Chaco
5.2.5 Andes
5.2.6 Southern Cone
5.2.6.1 Araucania
5.2.6.2 Patagonia
5.2.6.3 Fire Land (Tierra del Fuego)
6 Circumpolar

For more information, see List of indigenous peoples .

For more information, see
Ethnic group .

From Wikipedia:
World religions

Religion From Wikipedia:
... There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, but about 84% of the world's population is affiliated with one of the five largest religion groups, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion.
The religiously unaffiliated demographic includes those who do not identify with any particular religion, atheists, and agnostics.
While the religiously unaffiliated have grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs.

The study of religion encompasses a wide variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion and social scientific studies.
Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, including the ontological foundations of religious being and belief.

Contents
1 Concept and etymology
2 Definition
2.1 Modern Western
2.2 Classical
3 Aspects
3.1 Beliefs
3.1.1 Mythology
3.1.2 Worldview
3.2 Practices
3.3 Social organisation
4 Academic study
4.1 Theories
4.1.1 Origins and development
4.1.2 Cultural system
4.1.3 Social constructionism
4.1.4 Cognitive science
4.2 Comparativism
5 Classification
5.1 Morphological classification
5.2 Demographical classification
6 Specific religions
6.1 Abrahamic
6.1.1 Judaism
6.1.2 Christianity
6.1.3 Islam
6.1.4 Other
6.2 East Asian
6.2.1 Taoism and Confucianism
6.2.2 Chinese folk religion
6.3 Dharmic (Indian)
6.3.1 Hinduism
6.3.2 Jainism
6.3.3 Buddhism
6.3.4 Sikhism
6.4 Indigenous and folk
6.5 Traditional African
6.6 Iranian
6.7 New religious movements
7 Related aspects
7.1 Law
7.2 Science
7.3 Morality
7.4 Politics
7.4.1 Impact
7.4.2 Secularism
7.5 Economics
7.6 Health
7.7 Violence
7.7.1 Animal sacrifice
7.8 Superstition
7.9 Agnosticism and atheism
7.10 Interfaith cooperation
7.11 Culture
8 Criticism

For more information, see Religion .
World religions From Wikipedia:
World religions is a category used in the study of religion to demarcate the five—and in some cases six—largest and most internationally widespread religious movements.
Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism are always included in the list, being known as the "Big Five".
Some scholars also include another religion, such as Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, or the Bahá'í Faith, in the category.

The world religions paradigm was developed in the United Kingdom in the 1960s, where it was pioneered by phenomenological scholars like Ninian Smart.
It was designed to broaden the study of religion away from its heavy focus on Christianity by taking into account other large religious traditions around the world.
The paradigm is often used by lecturers instructing undergraduate students in the study of religion and is also the framework used by school teachers in the UK and other countries.
The paradigm's emphasis on viewing these religious movements as distinct and mutually exclusive entities has also had a wider impact on the categorisation of religion—for instance in censuses—in both Western countries and elsewhere.

Since the late twentieth century, the paradigm has faced critique by scholars of religion like Jonathan Z. Smith, some of whom have argued for its abandonment.
Critics have argued that the world religions paradigm is inappropriate because it takes the Protestant variant of Christianity as the model for what constitutes religion; that it is tied up with discourses of modernity, including modern power relations; that it encourages an uncritical understanding of religion; and that it makes a value judgement as to what religions should be considered "major".
Others have argued that it remains useful in the classroom, so long as students are made aware that it is a socially constructed category.

Contents
1 Definition
2 History
3 Criticism
3.1 Paradigm in pedagogy
4 Sources

For more information, see World religions .
Outline of religion From Wikipedia:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to religion:

Religion – organized collection of beliefs, cultural systems, and world views that relate humanity to an order of existence.
Many religions have narratives, symbols, and sacred histories that are intended to explain the meaning of life and/or to explain the origin of life or the Universe.
From their beliefs about the cosmos and human nature, people derive morality, ethics, religious laws or a preferred lifestyle.
According to some estimates, there are roughly 4,200 religions in the world.

Religious symbols in clock-wise order: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Bahá'í Faith, Hinduism, Taoism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Slavic neopaganism, Celtic polytheism, Heathenism (German paganism), Semitic neopaganism, Wicca, Kemetism (Egyptian paganism), Hellenism, Italo-Roman neopaganism.

Contents
1 Classification
2 Demographics
3 List of religions
4 Religion by region
5 Religious studies
6 Religious concepts
6.1 Religious belief
6.2 Approaches to the beliefs of others
6.3 Religious behaviour and experiences
7 Religion-specific topics
7.1 African traditional and diasporic topics
7.2 Ayyavazhi topics
7.3 Bahá'í Faith topics
7.4 Buddhism topics
7.5 Cao Dai topics
7.6 Christianity topics
7.7 Hinduism topics
7.8 Islam topics
7.9 Jainism topics
7.10 Judaism topics
7.11 Modern Paganism topics
7.12 New Age topics
7.13 New religious movement topics
7.14 Open source religion topics
7.15 Rasta topics
7.16 Satanism topics
7.17 Shintō topics
7.18 Sikhism topics
7.19 Spiritism topics
7.20 Tenrikyo topics
7.21 Unitarian Universalism topics
7.22 Zoroastrianism topics
8 Irreligion topics
9 Religion and religious ideas in fiction

For more information, see Outline of religion .
Major religious groups From Wikipedia:
The world's principal religions and spiritual traditions may be classified into a small number of major groups, although this is by no means a uniform practice.
This theory began in the 18th century with the goal of recognizing the relative levels of civility in societies.

Contents
1 History of religious categories
2 Classification
3 Religious demographics
3.1 Largest religious groups
3.2 Medium-sized religions
4 By region
5 Trends in adherence
5.1 World Christian Encyclopedia
6 Maps of self-reported adherence

For more information, see Major religious groups .
Religions by country From Wikipedia:
This is an overview of religion by country according to the Pew Research Center.
The article Religious information by country gives information from The World Factbook of the CIA and the U.S. Department of State.

Contents
1 World
2 Religions by country 2010
2.1 Africa
2.1.1 Central Africa
2.1.2 Eastern Africa
2.1.3 North Africa
2.1.4 Southern Africa
2.1.5 Western Africa
2.2 Americas
2.2.1 Caribbean
2.2.2 Central America
2.2.3 North America
2.2.4 South America
2.3 Asia
2.3.1 Eastern Asia
2.3.2 Southeastern Asia
2.3.3 Southern Asia
2.3.4 Middle Asia
2.3.5 West Asia (Middle East)
2.4 Europe
2.4.1 Central Europe
2.4.2 Eastern Europe
2.4.3 Northern Europe
2.4.4 Southeastern Europe
2.4.5 Southern Europe
2.4.6 Western Europe
2.5 Oceania
2.5.1 Australasia
2.5.2 Melanesia
2.5.3 Micronesia
2.5.4 Polynesia

For more information, see Religions by country .
List of religious populations From Wikipedia:
This is a list of religious populations by number of adherents and countries.

Contents
1 Adherent estimates in 2012
1.1 Notes
2 By proportion
2.1 Christians
2.2 Muslims
2.3 Irreligious and atheist
2.4 Hindus
2.5 Buddhists
2.6 Taoists/Confucianists/Chinese traditional religionists
2.7 Ethnic and indigenous
2.8 Sikhism
2.9 Spiritism
2.10 Judaism
2.11 Bahá'ís
2.12 Jainism
3 By population
3.1 Christians
3.2 Hindus
3.3 Muslims
3.4 Buddhists
3.5 Sikhs
3.6 Jews
3.7 Bahá'ís
3.8 Jainism

For more information, see List of religious populations .
List of religions and spiritual traditions From Wikipedia:
While religion is hard to define, one standard model of religion, used in religious studies courses, was proposed by Clifford Geertz, who defined it as a

[…] system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic."

A critique of Geertz's model by Talal Asad categorized religion as "an anthropological category."
Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to explain the origin of life or the universe.
They tend to derive morality, ethics, religious laws, or a preferred lifestyle from their ideas about the cosmos and human nature.
According to some estimates, there are roughly 4,200 religions in the world.

The word religion is sometimes used interchangeably with "faith" or "belief system", but religion differs from private belief in that it has a public aspect.
Most religions have organized behaviours, including clerical hierarchies, a definition of what constitutes adherence or membership, congregations of laity, regular meetings or services for the purposes of veneration of a deity or for prayer, holy places (either natural or architectural) or religious texts.
Certain religions also have a sacred language often used in liturgical services.
The practice of a religion may also include sermons, commemoration of the activities of a god or gods, sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trance, rituals, rites, ceremonies, worship, initiations, funerals, marriages, meditation, invocation, mediumship, music, art, dance, public service or other aspects of human culture.
Religious beliefs have also been used to explain parapsychological phenomena such as out-of-body experiences, near-death experiences and reincarnation, along with many other paranormal and supernatural experiences.

Some academics studying the subject have divided religions into three broad categories: world religions, a term which refers to transcultural, international faiths; indigenous religions, which refers to smaller, culture-specific or nation-specific religious groups; and new religious movements, which refers to recently developed faiths.
One modern academic theory of religion, social constructionism, says that religion is a modern concept that suggests all spiritual practice and worship follows a model similar to the Abrahamic religions as an orientation system that helps to interpret reality and define human beings, and thus religion, as a concept, has been applied inappropriately to non-Western cultures that are not based upon such systems, or in which these systems are a substantially simpler construct.

Contents
1 East Asian religions
1.1 Confucianism
1.2 Shinto
1.2.1 Shinto-inspired religions
1.3 Taoism
1.4 Other
1.4.1 Chinese
1.4.2 Japanese
1.4.3 Korean
1.4.4 Manchu
1.4.5 Vietnamese
2 Indic religions
2.1 Nāstik (Heterodox Indian)
2.2 Buddhism
2.2.1 New Buddhist movements
2.2.2 Global variants of Buddhism
2.3 Charvaka (Historical)
2.4 Din-I Ilahi (Historical)
2.5 Hinduism
2.6 Jainism
2.7 Meivazhi
2.8 Sarnaism
2.9 Sikhism
2.10 Nepalese religions
3 Middle Eastern religions
3.1 Bábism
3.2 Bahá'í Faith
3.3 Christianity
3.3.1 Eastern Christianity
3.3.2 Western Christianity
3.3.3 Other
3.4 Druze
3.5 Islam
3.5.1 Khawarij
3.5.2 Shia Islam
3.5.3 Sufism
3.5.4 Sunni Islam
3.5.5 Other
3.6 Judaism
3.6.1 Beta Israel
3.6.2 Black Hebrew Israelites
3.6.3 Karaite Judaism
3.6.4 Kabbalah
3.6.5 Noahidism
3.6.6 Rabbinic Judaism
3.6.7 Samaritans
3.6.8 Historical Judaism
3.7 Mandaeism
3.8 Manichaeism
3.9 Rastafari
3.10 Shabakism
3.11 Yazdânism
3.12 Zoroastrianism
4 Indigenous (ethnic, folk) religions
4.1 African
4.1.1 Traditional African
4.1.2 Diasporic African
4.2 Altaic
4.3 American
4.4 Austroasiatic
4.5 Austronesian
4.6 Chinese
4.7 Japanese
4.8 Korean
4.9 Tai
4.10 Tibetic
4.11 Uralic
4.12 Other Indigenous
5 New religious movements
5.1 Cargo cults
5.2 New ethnic religions
5.2.1 Black
5.2.2 White
5.2.3 Native American
5.2.4 Chicano/Mexican-American
5.3 Modern paganism
5.3.1 Ethnic neopaganism
5.3.2 Syncretic neopaganism
5.4 Entheogenic religions
5.5 New Thought
5.6 Parody religions
5.7 Post-theistic and naturalistic religions
5.8 UFO religions
5.9 Western esotericism
5.10 Other New
6 Historical religions
7 Other categorisations
7.1 By demographics
7.2 By area

For more information, see List of religions and spiritual traditions .
Religion in Africa From Wikipedia:
Religion in Africa is multifaceted and has been a major influence on art, culture and philosophy.
Today, the continent's various populations and individuals are mostly adherents of Christianity, Islam, and to a lesser extent several traditional African religions.
In Christian or Islamic communities, religious beliefs are also sometimes characterized with syncretism with the beliefs and practices of traditional religions.

Contents
1 African Traditional Religion
2 Abrahamic religions
2.1 Christianity
2.2 Islam
2.3 Judaism
3 Bahá'í Faith
4 Hinduism
5 Buddhism and Chinese religions
6 Other religions
7 Irreligion
8 Syncretism
9 Religious distribution

For more information, see Religion in Africa .
Religion in Antarctica From Wikipedia:
Christian buildings are the only religious buildings on the continent of Antarctica.
Although they are used mostly for Christian worship, the Chapel of the Snows has also been used for Buddhist and Bahai ceremonies.
Some of the early religious buildings are now protected as important historical monuments.

Contents
1 Beginnings
2 History (including the subantarctic islands)
3 Notable buildings
3.1 Catholic sites
3.2 Eastern Orthodox Christian revival
4 Islam

For more information, see Religion in Antarctica .
Religion in Asia From Wikipedia:
Asia is the largest and most populous continent and the birthplace of many religions including Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Shinto, Sikhism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism.
All major religious traditions are practiced in the region and new forms are constantly emerging.
Asia is noted for its diversity of culture.
hinduism is the largest religion in Asia with approx. 1.1 billion adherents.

Contents
1 Indian religions
1.1 Hinduism
1.2 Jainism
1.3 Buddhism
1.4 Sikhism
2 East Asian religions
2.1 Confucianism
2.2 Taoism
2.3 Chinese folk religion
2.4 Shinto
2.5 Mugyo
2.6 Vietnamese folk religion
3 Iranian religions
3.1 Zoroastrianism
4 Shamanism and Animism
5 Abrahamic religions
5.1 Judaism
5.2 Christianity
5.3 Islam
5.4 Bahá'í Faith
6 Irreligion
7 Religious distribution
7.1 Eastern Asia
7.2 Southeastern Asia
7.3 Southern Asia
7.4 Middle Asia
7.5 West Asia (Middle East)

For more information, see Religion in Asia .
Religion in Europe From Wikipedia:
Religion in Europe has been a major influence on today's society, art, culture, philosophy and law.
The largest religion in Europe is Christianity, but irreligion and practical secularization are strong.
Three countries in Southeastern Europe have Muslim majorities.
Ancient European religions included veneration for deities such as Zeus.
Modern revival movements of these religions include Heathenism, Rodnovery, Romuva, Druidry, Wicca, and others.
Smaller religions include Indian religions, Judaism, and some East Asian religions, which are found in their largest groups in Britain, France, and Kalmykia.

Contents
1 History
2 Religiosity
2.1 Gallup survey 2008–2009
2.2 Eurobarometer survey 2010
2.3 Eurobarometer survey 2012
2.3.1 Maps
2.4 Pew Research Poll
3 Abrahamic religions
3.1 Bahá'í Faith
3.2 Christianity
3.2.1 Christian Denominations
3.3 Islam
3.4 Judaism
4 Deism
5 Irreligion
5.1 Atheism and Agnosticism
6 European neopagan religions
6.1 Germanic indigenous religion
6.2 Roman religion
6.3 Druidry
7 Official religions
8 Indian religions
8.1 Buddhism
8.2 Hinduism
8.3 Jainism
8.4 Sikhism
9 Other religions

For more information, see Religion in Europe .
Religion in North America From Wikipedia:
Religion in North America spans the period of Native American dwelling, European settlement, and the present day.
Its various faiths have been a major influence on art, culture, philosophy and law.

Between them, the United States, Mexico and Canada account for 85 percent of the population of North America.
Religion in each of these countries is dominated by Christianity (77.4), making it the largest religion in North America.

Contents
1 By denomination
1.1 Judaism
1.2 Christianity
1.3 Islam
1.4 Buddhism
1.5 Hinduism
1.6 Sikhism
1.7 Bahá'í Faith
2 Non-Religious
3 By country
3.1 Canada
3.2 Mexico
3.3 United States

For more information, see Religion in North America .
Religion in Oceania From Wikipedia:
This page gives details on the outline of religions in Oceania.

Contents
1 Hyponyms
2 See also
3 Religious distribution
3.1 Australasia
3.2 Melanesia
3.3 Micronesia
3.4 Polynesia

For more information, see Religion in Oceania .
Religion in Australia From Wikipedia:
Religion in Australia is diverse. Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia of 1901 prohibits the Commonwealth government from establishing a church or interfering with the freedom of religion.
In an optional question on the 2016 Census, 52.2% of the Australian population declared some variety of Christianity.
Historically the percentage was far higher; now, the religious landscape of Australia is changing and diversifying.
In 2016, 30.1% of Australians stated "no religion" and a further 9.6% chose not to answer the question.
Other faiths include Muslims (2.6%), Buddhists (2.4%), Hindus (1.9%), Sikhs (0.5%), and Jews (0.4%).
As per the 2016 Census, Sikhism is the fastest growing religion in Australia which showed a 74% increase from the 2011 census followed by Hinduism (60% increase) and Irreligion (48% increase).

Australia's Aboriginal people developed the animist spirituality of the Dreaming and some of the earliest evidence on earth for religious practices among humans has been found in the archaeological record of their ancestors.
Torres Strait Islander religion bore similarities to broader Melanesian spirituality.
The general isolation of indigenous Australian religion ended with the arrival of the first British settlers in 1788, whereafter subsequent immigrants and their descendants have been predominantly Christian.

While the Church of England originally held a position of privilege in early colonial Australia, a legal framework guaranteeing religious equality evolved within a few decades.
Large numbers of Irish Catholics were transported to Australia through the British criminal justice system.
British Nonconformist Methodist, Presbyterians, Congregationalists and Baptists set up their own churches in the 19th century, as did Lutherans from Germany.

Smaller groups also arrived and established their churches.
Jews started arriving in the early 19th century.
The Australian gold rushes brought in workers from China and the Pacific islands, as well as specialised workers from British India, such as the mainly Muslim "Afghan Cameleers".

While Australia has a strong tradition of secular government, religious organisations have played a significant role in public life.
The Protestant and Catholic churches played an integral role in the development of education, health and welfare services.

Today, around a quarter of Christians attend church weekly; around a quarter of all school students attend church-affiliated schools.
The Christian festivals of Easter and Christmas are public holidays.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Indigenous Australian religion
1.2 Christianity
1.3 Other religions
2 Constitutional status
3 Demographics
3.1 Censuses' data
3.2 Line and bar charts
3.3 Total fertility rate
4 Indigenous Australian traditions
4.1 Since British settlement
5 Religions
5.1 Abrahamic religions
5.1.1 Bahá'í Faith
5.1.2 Christianity
5.1.3 Islam
5.1.4 Judaism
5.2 Indian/Dharmic religions
5.2.1 Buddhism
5.2.2 Hinduism
5.2.3 Sikhism
5.2.4 Jainism
5.3 Paganism
6 Irreligion
6.1 Non-religious
6.2 Atheism
7 Other religions

For more information, see Religion in Australia .
Religion in South America From Wikipedia:
Religion in South America has been a major influence on art, culture, philosophy and law.
Christianity is the main religion, with Roman Catholics having the most adherents.
Sizeable minorities of non-religious people and adherents of other religions are also present.

Contents
1 Religious freedom
2 Christianity
2.1 Catholicism
2.2 Protestantism
2.3 Spiritism
2.4 Eastern Orthodoxy
2.5 Oriental Orthodoxy
2.6 Other Christians
3 Other religions
4 Statistics

For more information, see Religion in South America .
Fundamentalism From Wikipedia:
Fundamentalism usually has a religious connotation that indicates unwavering attachment to a set of irreducible beliefs.
However, fundamentalism has come to be applied to a tendency among certain groups–mainly, although not exclusively, in religion–that is characterized by a markedly strict literalism as it is applied to certain specific scriptures, dogmas, or ideologies, and a strong sense of the importance of maintaining ingroup and outgroup distinctions, leading to an emphasis on purity and the desire to return to a previous ideal from which advocates believe members have strayed. Rejection of diversity of opinion as applied to these established "fundamentals" and their accepted interpretation within the group often results from this tendency.

Depending upon the context, the label "fundamentalism" can be a pejorative rather than a neutral characterization, similar to the ways that c alling political perspectives "right-wing" or "left-wing" can have for some negative connotations.

Contents
1 Religious
1.1 Buddhist
1.2 Christian
1.3 Hindu
1.4 Islamic
1.5 Jewish
1.6 Pagan
2 Non-religious
2.1 Atheist
3 Criticism
4 Controversy

For more information, see Fundamentalism .

For more information, see
Religion .

From Wikipedia:
Language: ... Estimates of the number of human languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000.
However, any precise estimate depends on a partly arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects.
Natural languages are spoken or signed, but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli – for example, in whistling, signed, or braille.
This is because human language is modality-independent. Depending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning, when used as a general concept, "language" may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules.
All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings.
Oral, manual and tactile languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes, and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances.
...
7 Linguistic diversity
7.1 Languages and dialects
7.2 Language families of the world
7.3 Language endangerment

For more information, see Language .

Linguistic diversity From Wikipedia:
SIL Ethnologue defines a "living language" as "one that has at least one speaker for whom it is their first language".
The exact number of known living languages varies from 6,000 to 7,000, depending on the precision of one's definition of "language", and in particular, on how one defines the distinction between languages and dialects.
As of 2016, Ethnologue cataloged 7,097 living human languages.
The Ethnologue establishes linguistic groups based on studies of mutual intelligibility, and therefore often includes more categories than more conservative classifications.
For example, the Danish language that most scholars consider a single language with several dialects is classified as two distinct languages (Danish and Jutish) by the Ethnologue.

According to the Ethnologue, 389 languages (nearly 6%) have more than a million speakers.
These languages together account for 94% of the world's population, whereas 94% of the world's languages account for the remaining 6% of the global population.
To the right is a table of the world's 10 most spoken languages with population estimates from the Ethnologue (2009 figures).

For more information, see Linguistic diversity .
Language family From Wikipedia:
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of that family.
The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in historical linguistics, which makes use of a metaphor comparing languages to people in a biological family tree, or in a subsequent modification, to species in a phylogenetic tree of evolutionary taxonomy.
Linguists therefore describe the daughter languages within a language family as being genetically related.

According to Ethnologue the 7,111 living human languages are distributed in 141 different language families.
A "living language" is simply one that is used as the primary form of communication of a group of people.
There are also many dead and extinct languages, as well as some that are still insufficiently studied to be classified, or are even unknown outside their respective speech communities.

Membership of languages in a language family is established by comparative linguistics.
Sister languages are said to have a "genetic" or "genealogical" relationship.
The latter term is older.
Speakers of a language family belong to a common speech community.
The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, with the original speech community gradually evolving into distinct linguistic units.
Individuals belonging to other speech communities may also adopt languages from a different language family through the language shift process.

Genealogically related languages present shared retentions; that is, features of the proto-language (or reflexes of such features) that cannot be explained by chance or borrowing (convergence).
Membership in a branch or group within a language family is established by shared innovations; that is, common features of those languages that are not found in the common ancestor of the entire family.
For example, Germanic languages are "Germanic" in that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in the Proto-Indo-European language.
These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, a descendant of Proto-Indo-European that was the source of all Germanic languages.

Contents
1 Structure of a family
1.1 Dialect continua
1.2 Isolates
1.3 Proto-languages
2 Other classifications of languages
2.1 Sprachbund
2.2 Contact languages

For more information, see Language family .
List of language families From Wikipedia:
The following is a list of language families.
It also includes language isolates, unclassified languages and other types.

Contents
1 Major language families
1.1 By number of languages
2 Language families (non-sign)
3 Language isolates
3.1 South and Central America
3.2 Northern America
3.3 Oceania
3.3.1 Australia
3.3.2 New Guinea
3.4 Asia
3.5 Africa
3.6 Europe
4 Unclassified languages
4.1 Europe
4.2 Africa
4.3 Asia
4.4 New Guinea
4.5 Oceania
4.6 Australia
4.7 South America
4.8 North America
5 Extinct families and unclassified languages
6 Other language classifications
7 Sign languages
8 Proposed families

For more information, see List of language families .
List of languages by total number of speakers From Wikipedia:
This is a list of languages by the total number of speakers.

Contents
1 Background
2 Ethnologue (2019, 22nd edition)
...
The following 32 languages are listed as having 50 million or more total speakers in the 2019 edition of Ethnologue, a language reference published by SIL International, which is based in the United States.
Entries identified by Ethnologue as macrolanguages are not included in this section.

For more information, see List of languages by total number of speakers .
List of languages by number of native speakers From Wikipedia:
This article ranks human languages by their number of native speakers. However, all such rankings should be used with caution, because it is not possible to devise a coherent set of linguistic criteria for distinguishing languages in a dialect continuum.
For example, a language is often defined as a set of varieties that are mutually intelligible, but independent national standard languages may be considered to be separate languages even though they are largely mutually intelligible, as in the case of Danish and Norwegian.
Conversely, many commonly accepted languages, including German, Italian and even English, encompass varieties that are not mutually intelligible.
While Arabic is sometimes considered a single language centred on Modern Standard Arabic, other authors describe its mutually unintelligible varieties as separate languages.
Similarly, Chinese is sometimes viewed as a single language because of shared culture and a single written form.
It is also common to describe various Chinese dialect groups, such as Mandarin, Wu and Yue, as languages, even though each of these groups contains many mutually unintelligible varieties.

There are also difficulties in obtaining reliable counts of speakers, which vary over time because of population change and language shift.
In some areas, there is no reliable census data, the data is not current, or the census may not record languages spoken, or record them ambiguously.
Sometimes speaker populations are exaggerated for political reasons, or speakers of minority languages may be under-reported in favour of a national language.

Contents
1 Top languages by population
1.1 Ethnologue (2019, 22nd edition)
1.2 Nationalencyklopedin (2010)
1.3 Charts and graphs

For more information, see List of languages by number of native speakers .
List of official languages From Wikipedia:
This is a list of official, or otherwise administratively-recognized, languages of sovereign countries, regions, and supra-national institutions.

Contents
1 Official languages of sovereign countries, wholly or partly
1.1 A
1.2 B
1.3 C
1.4 D
1.5 E
1.6 F
1.7 G
1.8 H
1.9 I
1.10 J
1.11 K
1.12 L
1.13 M
1.14 N
1.15 O
1.16 P
1.17 Q
1.18 R
1.19 S
1.20 T
1.21 U
1.22 V
1.23 W
1.24 X
1.25 Y
1.26 Z
2 Number of countries with the same official language
3 Official regional and minority languages
4 Official languages of supra-national institutions

For more information, see List of official languages .
List of official languages by country and territory From Wikipedia:
This is a complete list of the official languages of countries and dependent territories of the world.
It includes all languages that have official language status either statewide or in a part of the state, or that have status as a national language, regional language, or minority language.

Definitions

- Official language: one designated as having a unique legal status in the state, typically, the language used in a nation's legislative bodies, and often, official government business

- Regional language: one designated as having official status limited to a specific area, administrative division, or territory of the state (on this page a regional language will have parentheses next to it that contain a region, province, etc. where the language has regional status)

- Minority language: (as used here) one spoken by a minority population within the state and officially designated as such; typically afforded protection and designated an officially permissible language for legal and government business in a specific area or territory of the state (on this page a minority language will be followed by parentheses that identify its minority status)

- National language: one that uniquely represents the national identity of a state, nation, and/or country and so designated by a country's government; some are technically minority languages (on this page a national language will be followed by parentheses that identify it as a national language status).
Some countries have more than one language with this status

For more information, see List of official languages by country and territory .
List of largest languages without official status From Wikipedia:
Since it is impossible to list all the languages here, only languages with 2 million speakers and more are listed here.

Below is a list of languages without official status (or minority languages) with at least two million speakers, ordered by the number of native speakers

For more information, see List of largest languages without official status .
Lists of endangered languages From Wikipedia:
The following lists of endangered languages are mainly based on the definitions used by UNESCO.
In order to be listed, a language must be classified as "endangered" in a cited academic source.
Researchers have concluded that in less than one hundred years, almost half of the languages known today will be lost forever.

Afro-Eurasian languages
African languages
List of endangered languages in Africa
Australian languages
List of Australian Aboriginal languages
List of endangered languages in Papua New Guinea
Eurasian languages
Asian languages
List of endangered languages in Asia
List of endangered languages in Bangladesh
List of endangered languages in China
List of endangered languages in India
List of endangered languages in Indonesia
List of endangered languages in Nepal
European languages
List of endangered languages in Europe
Russian languages
List of endangered languages in Russia
North and South American languages
List of endangered languages in North America
List of endangered languages in Canada
List of endangered languages in Central America
List of endangered languages in Mexico
List of endangered languages in the United States
List of endangered languages in South America
List of endangered languages in Brazil
List of endangered languages in Colombia
Pacific languages
List of endangered languages of the Pacific

For more information, see Lists of endangered languages .
List of revived languages From Wikipedia:
A revived language is one that, having experienced near or complete extinction as either a spoken or written language, has been intentionally revived and has regained some of its former status.

The most frequent reason for extinction is the marginalisation of local languages within a wider dominant nation state, which might at times amount to outright political oppression.
This process normally works alongside economic and cultural pressures for greater centralisation and assimilation.
Once a language has become marginalised in this way, it is often perceived as being "useless" by its remaining speakers, who associate it with low social status and poverty, and consequently fail to pass it on to the next generation.

The only substantial success story in the field of language revival is Hebrew; all other cases are projects of limited success.

For more information, see List of revived languages .
World language From Wikipedia:
A world language is spoken internationally and is learned and spoken by a large number of people as a second language.
A world language is characterized not only by the total number of speakers (native and second language speakers), but also by its geographical distribution, as well as use in international organizations and diplomatic relations.
One of the most widely spoken and fastest spreading world languages today is English, which has over 1.1 billion first- and second-language users worldwide.

Contents
1 Overview
1.1 Asian languages
1.1.1 Arabic
1.1.2 Chinese
1.1.3 Persian
1.1.4 Indian languages
1.2 European languages
1.2.1 English
1.2.2 French
1.2.3 German
1.2.4 Russian
1.2.5 Spanish
2 History
3 Living world languages
4 Other supra-regional languages

For more information, see World language .
Dialect From Wikipedia:
The term dialect (from Latin dialectus, dialectos, from the Ancient Greek word διάλεκτος, diálektos, "discourse", from διά, diá, "through" and λέγω, légō, "I speak") is used in two distinct ways to refer to two different types of linguistic phenomena:

- One usage refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers.
Under this definition, the dialects or varieties of a particular language are closely related and, despite their differences, are most often largely mutually intelligible, especially if close to one another on the dialect continuum.
The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class or ethnicity.
A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect, a dialect that is associated with a particular ethnic group can be termed an ethnolect, and a geographical/regional dialect may be termed a regiolect (alternative terms include 'regionalect', 'geolect', and 'topolect').
According to this definition, any variety of a given language constitutes "a dialect", including any standard varieties.
In this case, the distinction between the "standard language" (i.e. the "standard" dialect of a particular language) and the "nonstandard" dialects of the same language is often arbitrary and based on social, political, cultural, or historical considerations.
In a similar way, the definitions of the terms "language" and "dialect" may overlap and are often subject to debate, with the differentiation between the two classifications often grounded in arbitrary and/or sociopolitical motives.

- The other usage of the term "dialect", specific to colloquial settings in countries like Italy, carries a pejorative undertone and underlines the socially subordinated status of a language to another language, often historically cognate or genetically related to the standard language, but not actually derived from the standard language.
In other words, it is not an actual variety of the "standard language" or dominant language, but rather a separate, independently evolved but often related language.
In this sense, unlike in the first usage, the standard language would not itself be considered a "dialect", as it is the dominant language in a particular state or region, whether in terms of linguistic prestige, social or political status, official status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above.
Meanwhile, under this usage, the "dialects" subordinate to the standard language are generally not variations on the standard language but rather separate (but often loosely related) languages in and of themselves.
Thus, these "dialects" are not dialects or varieties of a particular language in the same sense as in the first usage; though they may share roots in the same family or subfamily as the standard language and may even, to varying degrees, share some mutual intelligibility with the standard language, they often did not evolve closely with the standard language or within the same linguistic subgroup or speech community as the standard language and instead may better fit various parties’ criteria for a separate language.
A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation (phonology, including prosody).
Where a distinction can be made only in terms of pronunciation (including prosody, or just prosody itself), the term accent may be preferred over dialect. Other types of speech varieties include jargons, which are characterized by differences in lexicon (vocabulary); slang; patois; pidgins; and argots.
The particular speech patterns used by an individual are termed an idiolect.

Contents
1 Standard and non-standard dialect
2 Dialect or language
2.1 Mutual intelligibility
2.2 Sociolinguistic definitions
2.3 Dialect and language clusters
2.4 Political factors
2.5 Terminology
3 Examples
3.1 German
3.2 Italian
3.3 The Balkans
3.4 Lebanon
3.5 North Africa
3.6 Ukraine
3.7 Moldova
3.8 Greater China
4 Historical linguistics
5 Interlingua
6 Selected list of articles on dialects

For more information, see Dialect .
Linguistic demography From Wikipedia:
Linguistic demography is the statistical study of languages among all populations.
Estimating the number of speakers of a given language is not straightforward, and various estimates may diverge considerably.
This is first of all due to the question of defining "language" vs. "dialect".
Identification of varieties as a single language or as distinct languages is often based on ethnic, cultural, or political considerations rather than mutual intelligibility.
The second difficulty is multilingualism, complicating the definition of "native language".
Finally, in many countries, insufficient census data add to the difficulties.

Demolinguistics is a branch of Sociology of language observing linguistic trends as affected by population distribution and redistribution and by the status of societies.

Contents
1 Most spoken languages

For more information, see Linguistic demography .
Languages used on the Internet From Wikipedia:
Slightly over half of the homepages of the most visited websites on the World Wide Web are in English, with varying amounts of information available in many other languages.
Other top languages, according to W3Techs, are Russian, German, Spanish, French, Japanese, Portuguese, Italian, and Persian.

Of the more than 7,000 existing languages, only a few hundred are recognized as being in use for Web pages on the World Wide Web.

Contents
1 Languages used
2 Content languages for websites
3 Internet users by language

For more information, see Languages used on the Internet .
International auxiliary language From Wikipedia:
An international auxiliary language[A] (sometimes abbreviated as IAL or auxlang) or interlanguage is a language meant for communication between people from different nations who do not share a common first language. An auxiliary language is primarily a foreign language.

Languages of dominant societies over the centuries have served as lingua francas that have sometimes approached the international level.
Latin, Greek and the Mediterranean Lingua Franca were used in the past, and (Standard) Arabic, Standard Chinese, English, French, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish have been used as such in recent times in many parts of the world.

However, as lingua francas are traditionally associated with the very dominance—cultural, political, and economic—that made them popular, they are often also met with resistance.
For this and other reasons, some have turned to the idea of promoting an artificial or constructed language as a possible solution, by way of "auxiliary" language.
The term "auxiliary" implies that it is intended to be an additional language for the people of the world, rather than to replace their native languages.
Often, the term is used to refer to planned or constructed languages proposed specifically to ease international communication, such as Esperanto, Ido and Interlingua.
However, it can also refer to the concept of such a language being determined by international consensus, including even a standardized natural language (e.g., International English), and has also been connected to the project of constructing a universal language.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Natural international languages: Lingua francas
1.2 Constructed languages
1.3 Volapük
1.4 From Kadem bevünetik volapüka to Academia pro Interlingua
1.5 Esperanto
1.6 Ido and the Esperantidos
1.7 Interlingue and Novial
1.8 Interlingua
1.9 Internet age
1.10 Zonal constructed languages
2 Scholarly study
3 Writing systems
3.1 Latin script
4 Classification
4.1 Comparison of sample texts
4.1.1 Schematic languages
4.1.2 Naturalistic languages
4.1.3 Other examples
5 Methods of propagation
6 Pictorial languages
7 Sign languages
8 Criticism

For more information, see International auxiliary language .

For more information, see
Language .

From Wikipedia:
A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, often a state.

In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary.
Government is a means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy.
Each government has a kind of constitution, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy.
Typically the philosophy chosen is some balance between the principle of individual freedom and the idea of absolute state authority (tyranny).

While all types of organizations have governance, the word government is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200 independent national governments on Earth, as well as subsidiary organizations.

Historically prevalent forms of government include monarchy, aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, theocracy and tyranny.
The main aspect of any philosophy of government is how political power is obtained, with the two main forms being electoral contest and hereditary succession.

Libertarianism and anarchism are political ideologies that seeks to limit or abolish government, finding government disruptive to self organization and freedom.

Contents
1 Definitions and etymology
2 History
3 Political science
3.1 Classifying government
3.2 Social-political ambiguity
3.3 The dialectical forms of government
4 Forms of government
4.1 Autocracy
4.2 Aristocracy
4.3 Democracy
4.4 Republics
4.5 Federalism
5 Economic systems
6 Maps
7 See also
7.1 Principles
7.2 Autonomy

List of forms of government From Wikipedia:
This article lists forms of government and political systems, according to a series of different ways of categorising them.
The systems listed are not mutually exclusive, and often have overlapping definitions.

Contents
1 Forms of government by power structure
2 Forms of government by power source
3 Forms of government by power ideology
4 Forms of government by socio-political attributes
5 Forms of government by other attributes

For more information, see List of forms of government .
Anarchy From Wikipedia:
Anarchy refers to a society, entity, group of people, or a single person that rejects hierarchy.
The word originally meant leaderlessness, but Pierre-Joseph Proudhon adopted the term in his 1840 treatise What Is Property? to refer to anarchism, a new political philosophy which advocates stateless societies based on voluntary associations.

In practical terms, anarchy can refer to the curtailment or abolition of traditional forms of government and institutions.
It can also designate a nation—or anywhere on earth that is inhabited—that has no system of government or central rule.
Anarchy is primarily advocated by individual anarchists who propose replacing government with voluntary institutions.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Political philosophy
2.1 Description
2.2 Immanuel Kant
3 Anthropology
4 Examples of state-collapse anarchy
4.1 English Civil War (1642–1651)
4.2 French Revolution (1789–1799)
4.3 Jamaica (1720)
4.4 Russian Civil War (1917–1922)
4.5 Spain (1936)
4.6 Albania (1997)
4.7 Somalia (1991–2006)
5 Lists of ungoverned communities
5.1 Ungoverned communities
5.2 Anarchist communities

For more information, see Anarchy .
Confederation From Wikipedia:
A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a union of sovereign states, united for purposes of common action often in relation to other states.
Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issues, such as defense, foreign relations, internal trade or currency, with the general government being required to provide support for all its members.
Confederalism represents a main form of inter-governmentalism, this being defined as any form of interaction between states which takes place on the basis of sovereign independence or government.

The nature of the relationship among the member states constituting a confederation varies considerably.
Likewise, the relationship between the member states and the general government, and the distribution of powers among them is highly variable.
Some looser confederations are similar to international organisations.
Other confederations with stricter rules may resemble federal systems.

Since the member states of a confederation retain their sovereignty, they have an implicit right of secession.
Political philosopher Emmerich Vattel observed: ‘Several sovereign and independent states may unite themselves together by a perpetual confederacy without each in particular ceasing to be a perfect state.
… The deliberations in common will offer no violence to the sovereignty of each member’.

Under a confederal arrangement, in contrast with a federal one, the central authority is relatively weak.
Decisions made by the general government in a unicameral legislature, a council of the member states, require subsequent implementation by the member states to take effect.
They are therefore not laws acting directly upon the individual, but instead have more the character of inter-state agreements.
Also, decision-making in the general government usually proceeds by consensus (unanimity) and not by majority, which makes for a slow and inefficient government.
These problematic features, limiting the effectiveness of the union, mean that political pressure tends to build over time for the transition to a federal system of government, as happened in the American, Swiss, German and European cases of regional integration.

Contents
1 Examples
1.1 Belgium
1.2 Canada
1.3 European Union
1.4 Indigenous confederations in North America
1.5 Serbia and Montenegro
1.6 Switzerland
2 Historical confederations
2.1 List

For more information, see Confederation .
Federation From Wikipedia:
A federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government (federalism).
In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is typically constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision of either party, the states or the federal political body.
Alternatively, federation is a form of government in which sovereign power is formally divided between a central authority and a number of constituent regions so that each region retains some degree of control over its internal affairs.
It is often argued that federal states where the central government has the constitutional authority to suspend a constituent state's government by invoking gross mismanagement or civil unrest, or to adopt national legislation that overrides or infringe on the constituent states' powers by invoking the central government's constitutional authority to ensure "peace and good government" or to implement obligations contracted under an international treaty, are not truly federal states.

The governmental or constitutional structure found in a federation is considered to be federalist, or to be an example of federalism.
It can be considered the opposite of another system, the unitary state. France, for example, has been unitary for multiple centuries.
Austria and its Bundesländer was a unitary state with administrative divisions that became federated through the implementation of the Austrian Constitution following the 1918 collapse of Austria-Hungary.
Germany, with its 16 states, or Bundesländer, is an example of a federation. Federations are often multiethnic and cover a large area of territory (such as Russia, the United States, Canada, India, or Brazil), but neither is necessarily the case (such as Saint Kitts and Nevis).

Several ancient chiefdoms and kingdoms, such as the 4th-century BCE League of Corinth, Noricum in Central Europe, and the Iroquois Confederacy in pre-Columbian North America, could be described as federations or confederations.
The Old Swiss Confederacy was an early example of formal non-unitary statehood.

Several colonies and dominions in the New World consisted of autonomous provinces, transformed to federal states upon independence such as the United States, and various countries in Latin America (see Spanish American wars of independence).
Some of the New World federations failed; the Federal Republic of Central America broke up into independent states less than 20 years after its founding.
Others, such as Argentina and Mexico, have shifted between federal, confederal, and unitary systems, before settling into federalism. Brazil became a federation only after the fall of the monarchy, and Venezuela became a federation after the Federal War.
Australia and Canada are also federations.

Germany is another nation-state that has switched between confederal, federal and unitary rules, since the German Confederation was founded in 1815.
The North German Confederation, the succeeding German Empire and the Weimar Republic were federations.

Founded in 1922, the Soviet Union was formally a federation of Soviet republics, autonomous republics and other federal subjects, though in practice highly centralized under the government of the Soviet Union.
The Russian Federation has inherited a similar system.

Nigeria, Pakistan, India and Malaysia (then Federation of Malaya) became federations on or shortly before becoming independent from the British Empire.

In some recent cases, federations have been instituted as a measure to handle ethnic conflict within a state, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Iraq since 2005.

With the United States Constitution having become effective on 4 March 1789, the United States is the oldest surviving federation.
On the other end of the timeline is Nepal, which became the newest federation after its constitution went into effect on 20 September 2015.

Contents
1 Federations and other forms of state
1.1 Federations
1.2 Unitary states
1.2.1 Confederation
1.3 Empire
1.4 Comparison with other systems of autonomy
1.4.1 Federacy
1.4.2 Devolution
1.4.3 Associated states
1.4.4 Crown dependencies
1.4.5 Dependent territories
1.5 De facto federations
1.5.1 Spain
1.5.2 South Africa
1.5.3 European Union
1.5.4 People's Republic of China
1.5.5 Myanmar
2 Internal controversy and conflict
3 Federal governments
3.1 Contemporary
3.2 Long form titles
3.3 Defunct

For more information, see Federation .
Unitary state From Wikipedia:
A unitary state is a state governed as a single power in which the central government is ultimately supreme.
The central government may create (or abolish) administrative divisions (sub-national units).
Such units exercise only the powers that the central government chooses to delegate.
Although political power may be delegated through devolution to local governments by statute, the central government may abrogate the acts of devolved governments or curtail (or expand) their powers.
A large majority of the world's states (165 of the 193 UN member states) have a unitary system of government.

Unitary states stand in contrast with federations, also known as federal states.
In federations, the sub-national governments share powers with the central government as equal actors through a written constitution, to which the consent of both is required to make amendments.
This means that the sub-national units have a right of existence and powers that cannot be unilaterally changed by the central government.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is an example of a unitary state.
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have a degree of autonomous devolved power, but such power is delegated by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which may enact laws unilaterally altering or abolishing devolution (England does not have any devolved power).
Similarly in the Kingdom of Spain, the devolved powers are delegated through the central government.
Many unitary states have no areas possessing a degree of autonomy.
In such countries, sub-national regions cannot decide their own laws.
Examples are Romania, the Republic of Ireland and the Kingdom of Norway.

Contents
1 List of unitary republics and unitary kingdom
1.1 Unitary republics
1.2 Unitary monarchies

For more information, see Unitary state .
Autocracy From Wikipedia:
An autocracy is a system of government in which a single person (the autocrat) possesses supreme and absolute power.
The decisions of this autocrat are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for the implicit threat of a coup d'état or mass insurrection).
Absolute monarchies (such as Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Eswatini, Brunei, and Oman) and dictatorships (such as Turkmenistan, E ritrea, and North Korea) are the main modern-day forms of autocracy.

In earlier times, the term "autocrat" was coined as a favorable feature of the ruler, having some connection to the concept of "lack of conflicts of interests" as well as an indication of grandeur and power.
The Russian Emperor for example was styled, "Autocrat of all the Russias", as late as the early 20th century.

Contents
1 History and etymology
2 Comparison with other forms of government
3 Origin and developments
4 Maintenance
5 Autocracy promotion
6 Historical examples

For more information, see Autocracy .
Democracy From Wikipedia:
Democracy (Greek: δημοκρατία dēmokratía, literally "rule by people") is a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting.
In a direct democracy, the citizens as a whole form a governing body and vote directly on each issue.
In a representative democracy the citizens elect representatives from among themselves.
These representatives meet to form a governing body, such as a legislature.
In a constitutional democracy the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits the majority and protects the minority, usually through the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of association.

"Rule of the majority" is commonly referred to as democracy.
John Locke wrote: "There is no practical alternative to majority political rule – i.e., to taking the consent of the majority as the act of the whole and binding every individual.
It would be next to impossible to obtain the consent of every individual before acting collectively ... No rational people could desire and constitute a society that had to dissolve straightaway because the majority was unable to make the final decision and the society was incapable of acting as one body."

Democracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes.
The uncertainty of outcomes is inherent in democracy. Democracy makes all forces struggle repeatedly to realize their interests and devolves power from groups of people to sets of rules.
Western democracy, as distinct from that which existed in pre-modern societies, is generally considered to have originated in city-states such as Classical Athens and the Roman Republic, where various schemes and degrees of enfranchisement of the free male population were observed before the form disappeared in the West at the beginning of late antiquity.
The English word dates back to the 16th century, from the older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents.

According to American political scientist Larry Diamond, democracy consists of four key elements: a political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections; the active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life; protection of the human rights of all citizens; a rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.
Todd Landman, nevertheless, draws our attention to the fact that democracy and human rights are two different concepts and that "there must be greater specificity in the conceptualisation and operationalisation of democracy and human rights".

The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning "rule of an elite".
While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.
The political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation.
In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship consisted of an elite class, until full enfranchisement was won for all adult citizens in most modern democracies through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries.

Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is either held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy.
Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic and monarchic elements.
Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution.

Contents
1 Characteristics
2 History
2.1 Ancient origins
2.2 Middle Ages
2.3 Modern era
2.3.1 Early modern period
2.3.2 18th and 19th centuries
2.3.3 20th and 21st centuries
3 Measurement of democracy
3.1 Difficulties in measuring democracy
4 Types of governmental democracies
4.1 Basic forms
4.1.1 Direct
4.1.2 Representative
4.1.3 Hybrid or semi-direct
4.2 Variants
4.2.1 Constitutional monarchy
4.2.2 Republic
4.2.3 Liberal democracy
4.2.4 Socialist
4.2.5 Anarchist
4.2.6 Sortition
4.2.7 Consociational
4.2.8 Consensus democracy
4.2.9 Supranational
4.2.10 Inclusive
4.2.11 Participatory politics
4.2.12 Cosmopolitan
4.2.13 Creative democracy
4.2.14 Guided democracy
5 Non-governmental democracy
6 Theory
6.1 Aristotle
6.2 Early Republican theory
6.3 Rationale
6.3.1 Aggregative
6.3.2 Deliberative
6.3.3 Radical
7 Criticism
7.1 Inefficiencies
7.2 Popular rule as a façade
7.3 Mob rule
7.4 Political instability
7.5 Fraudulent elections
7.6 Opposition
8 Development

For more information, see Democracy .
Oligarchy From Wikipedia:
Oligarchy (from Greek ὀλιγαρχία (oligarkhía); from ὀλίγος (olígos), meaning 'few', and ἄρχω (arkho), meaning 'to rule or to command') is a form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people.
These people may be distinguished by nobility, wealth, family ties, education or corporate, religious, political, or military control.
Such states are often controlled by families who typically pass their influence from one generation to the next, but inheritance is not a necessary condition for the application of this term.

Throughout history, oligarchies have often been tyrannical, relying on public obedience or oppression to exist.
Aristotle pioneered the use of the term as meaning rule by the rich, for which another term commonly used today is plutocracy.
In the early 20th century Robert Michels developed the theory that democracies, as all large organizations, have a tendency to turn into oligarchies.
In his "Iron law of oligarchy" he suggests that the necessary division of labor in large organizations leads to the establishment of a ruling class mostly concerned with protecting their own power.

This was already recognized by the Athenians in the fourth century BCE: After the restoration of democracy from oligarchical coups, they used the drawing of lots for selecting government officers to counteract that tendency toward oligarchy in government.
They drew lots from large groups of adult volunteers to pick civil servants performing judicial, executive, and administrative functions (archai, boulē, and hēliastai).
They even used lots for posts, such as judges and jurors in the political courts (nomothetai), which had the power to overrule the Assembly.

Contents
1 Minority rule
2 Putative oligarchies
2.1 Russian Federation
2.2 Ukraine
2.3 Zimbabwe
2.4 United States

For more information, see Oligarchy .
Monarchy From Wikipedia:
A monarchy is a form of government in which a single person holds supreme authority in ruling a country, also performing ceremonial duties and embodying the country's national identity.
Although some monarchs are elected, in most cases, the monarch's position is inherited and lasts until death or abdication.
In these cases, the royal family or members of the dynasty usually serve in official capacities as well.
The governing power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic (crowned republic), to partial and restricted (constitutional monarchy), to completely autocratic (absolute monarchy).

Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 20th century.
Forty-five sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state, sixteen of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state.
Most modern monarchs are constitutional monarchs, who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role, but exercise limited or no political power under the nation's constitution.
In some nations, however, such as Brunei, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Eswatini, the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the nation, either by tradition or by a constitutional mandate.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Characteristics and role
3.1 Powers of the monarch
3.2 Person of monarch
3.3 Role of monarch
3.4 Titles of monarchs
3.5 Dependent monarchies
4 Succession
4.1 Hereditary monarchies
4.2 Elective monarchies
5 Current monarchies
5.1 Commonwealth realms
5.2 Other European constitutional monarchies
5.3 European monarchies in which the monarch retains more powers
5.4 Islamic monarchies
5.5 East and Southeast Asian constitutional monarchies
5.6 Other monarchies

For more information, see Monarchy .
Republic From Wikipedia:
A republic (Latin: res publica) is a form of government in which the country is considered a “public matter”, not the private concern or property of the rulers.
The primary positions of power within a republic are not inherited, but are attained through democracy, oligarchy or autocracy.
It is a form of government under which the head of state is not a hereditary monarch.

In the context of American constitutional law, the definition of republic refers specifically to a form of government in which elected individuals represent the citizen body and exercise power according to the rule of law under a constitution, including separation of powers with an elected head of state, referred to as a constitutional republic or representative democracy.

As of 2017, 159 of the world’s 206 sovereign states use the word “republic” as part of their official names – not all of these are republics in the sense of having elected governments, nor is the word “republic” used in the names of all nations with elected governments.

The word republic comes from the Latin term res publica, which literally means “public thing,” “public matter,” or “public affair” and was used to refer to the state as a whole.
The term developed its modern meaning in reference to the constitution of the ancient Roman Republic, lasting from the overthrow of the kings in 509 B.C. to the establishment of the Empire in 27 B.C.
This constitution was characterized by a Senate composed of wealthy aristocrats and wielding significant influence; several popular assemblies of all free citizens, possessing the power to elect magistrates and pass laws; and a series of magistracies with varying types of civil and political authority.

Most often a republic is a single sovereign state, but there are also sub-sovereign state entities that are referred to as republics, or that have governments that are described as “republican” in nature.
For instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution "guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government".
In contrast, the former Soviet Union, which described itself as being a group of “Republics” and also as a “federal multinational state composed of 15 republics”, was widely viewed as being a totalitarian form of government and not a genuine republic, since its electoral system was structured so as to automatically guarantee the election of government-sponsored candidates.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Classical republics
2.2 Other ancient republics
2.3 Indian subcontinent
2.4 Icelandic Commonwealth
2.5 Mercantile republics
2.5.1 Mercantile republics outside Europe
2.6 Calvinist republics
2.7 Liberal republics
2.8 Decolonization
2.9 Socialist republics
2.10 Islamic republics
3 Head of state
3.1 Structure
3.2 Elections
3.3 Ambiguities
3.4 Sub-national republics
4 Other meanings
4.1 Political philosophy
4.2 United States

For more information, see Republic .
Central government From Wikipedia:
A central government is the government that holds absolute supremacy over a unitary state.
Its equivalent in a federation is the federal government, which may have distinct powers at various levels authorized or delegated to it by its federated states, though the adjective 'central' is sometimes also used to describe it.

The structure of central governments vary.
Many countries have created autonomous regions by delegating powers from the central government to governments on subnational level, such as regional, state, provincial, local and other instances.
Based on a broad definition of a basic political system, there are two or more levels of government that exist within an established territory a nd government through common institutions with overlapping or shared powers as prescribed by a constitution or other law.

Common responsibilities of this level of government which are not granted to lower levels are maintaining national security and exercising international diplomacy, including the right to sign binding treaties.
Basically, the central government has the power to make laws for the whole country, in contrast with local governments.

The difference between a central government and a federal government is that the autonomous status of self-governing regions exists by the sufferance of the central government and are often created through a process of devolution.
As such they may be unilaterally revoked with a simple change in the law.
An example of this was done in 1973 when the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973 abolished the government of Northern Ireland which had been created under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. It is common for a federal government to be brought into being by agreement between a number of formally independent states and therefore its powers to affect the status of the balance of powers is significantly smaller (i.e. the United States).
Thus federal governments are often established voluntarily from 'below' whereas devolution grants self-government from above.

Contents
1 Examples
1.1 Unitary states
1.2 Federations
1.3 Confederations

For more information, see Central government .
City-state From Wikipedia:
A city-state is a sovereign state, also described as a type of small independent country, that usually consists of a single city and its dependent territories.
Historically, this included cities such as Rome, Athens, Carthage, and the Italian city-states during the Renaissance.
As of 2019, only a handful of sovereign city-states exist, with some disagreement as to which are city-states.
A great deal of consensus exists that the term properly applies currently to Monaco, Singapore, and Vatican City.
City states are also sometimes called microstates which however also includes other configurations of very small countries, not to be confused with micronations.

A number of other small states share similar characteristics, and therefore are sometimes also cited as modern city-states—namely, Qatar, Brunei, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Malta, which each have an urban center comprising a significant proportion of the population, though all have several distinct settlements and a designated or de facto capital city.
Occasionally, other small states with high population densities, such as San Marino, are also cited, despite lacking a large urban centre characteristic of traditional city-states.

Several non-sovereign cities enjoy a high degree of autonomy, and are sometimes considered city-states.
Hong Kong and Macau, along with independent members of the United Arab Emirates, most notably Dubai and Abu Dhabi, are often cited as such.

Contents
1 Historical background
1.1 Ancient and medieval world
1.2 Southeast Asia
1.3 Central Europe
1.4 Italy
1.5 20th-century cities under international supervision
2 Modern city-states
2.1 Monaco
2.2 Singapore
2.3 Vatican City
3 Non-sovereign city-states
3.1 Stadtstaaten of Germany

For more information, see City-state .
Commune From Wikipedia:
A commune (the French word appearing in the 12th century from Medieval Latin communia, meaning a large gathering of people sharing a common life; from Latin communis, things held in common) is an intentional community of people living together, sharing common interests, often having common values and beliefs, as well as shared property, possessions, resources, and, in some communes, work, income or assets.

In addition to the communal economy, consensus decision-making, non-hierarchical structures and ecological living have become important core principles for many communes.
There are many contemporary intentional communities all over the world, a list of which can be found at the Fellowship for Intentional Community (FIC).

Contents
1 Categorization of communities
2 Core principles of communes
3 Communes around the world
3.1 Germany
3.2 Israel
3.3 Ireland
3.4 Russia
3.5 United Kingdom
3.6 United States
3.7 Venezuela

For more information, see Commune .
International organization From Wikipedia:
An international organization is an organization with an international membership, scope, or presence.
There are two main types:

- Intergovernmental organizations, also known as international governmental organizations (IGOs): the type of organization most closely associated with the term 'international organization', these are organizations that are made up primarily of sovereign states (referred to as member states). Notable examples include the United Nations (UN), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Council of Europe (COE), International Labour Organization (ILO), International Police Organization (INTERPOL) and CGIAR (formerly the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research).
The UN has used the term "intergovernmental organization" instead of "international organization" for clarity.

- International nongovernmental organizations (INGOs): non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that operate internationally.
These include international non-profit organization such as the World Organization of the Scout Movement, International Committee of the Red Cross and Médecins Sans Frontières.

The first and oldest intergovernmental organization is the International Telecommunication Union (founded in 1865), which served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations Several regional organizations also existed before then, such as the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna.

The role of international organizations is helping to set the international agenda, mediating political bargaining, providing a place for political initiatives and acting as catalysts for coalition- formation.
International organizations also define the salient issues and decide which issues can be grouped together, thus help governmental priority determination or other governmental arrangements.

Not all international organizations seek economic, political and social cooperation and integration.

For more information, see International organization .
World government From Wikipedia:
World government or global government or cosmocracy is the notion of a common political authority for all of humanity, giving way to a global government and a single state that exercises authority over the entire world.
Such a government could come into existence either through violent and compulsory world domination or through peaceful and voluntary s upranational union.

There has never been a worldwide executive, legislature, judiciary, military, or constitution with global jurisdiction.
The United Nations, beyond the United Nations Security Council (which has the ability to issue mandatory resolutions), is limited to a mostly advisory role, and its stated purpose is to foster cooperation between existing national governments rather than exert authority over them.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Origins of the idea
1.2 Dante
1.3 Francisco de Vitoria
1.4 Hugo Grotius
1.5 Immanuel Kant
1.6 Johann Gottlieb Fichte
1.7 Joseph Smith
1.8 Alfred, Lord Tennyson
1.9 Ulysses S. Grant
1.10 William Gladstone
1.11 Kang Youwei
1.12 Friedrich Nietzsche
1.13 Vacher de Lapouge
1.14 Bahá'u'lláh
1.15 International Peace Congress
1.16 International organizations
1.17 H. G. Wells
1.18 League of Nations
1.19 World Communism
1.20 Halford Mackinder
1.21 Lionel George Curtis
1.22 Nazi Germany
1.23 Imperial Japan
1.24 Atlantic Charter
1.25 Harry Truman
1.26 World Federalist Movement
1.27 United Nations
1.28 Proposed United Nations Parliamentary Assembly
1.29 Garry Davis
1.30 World Passport
1.31 Legal Realism (1954)
1.32 End of the Cold War (1992)
2 Current global governance system
3 Existing regional unions of nations
3.1 European Union
3.2 NATO
3.3 CARICOM
3.4 African Union
3.5 ASEAN
3.6 Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
3.7 Commonwealth of Independent States
3.8 Arab League
3.9 Union of South American Nations
3.10 South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
3.11 Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
3.12 Turkic Council

For more information, see World government .
Federal monarchy From Wikipedia:
A federal monarchy is a federation of states with a single monarch as over-all head of the federation, but retaining different monarchs, or a non-monarchical system of government, in the various states joined to the federation.

Contents
1 As a term in political science
2 Federal monarchies
2.1 Historically
2.2 Currently
3 List of federal monarchies
4 See also

For more information, see Federal monarchy .
Aristocracy From Wikipedia:
Aristocracy (Greek ἀριστοκρατία aristokratía, from ἄριστος aristos 'excellent', and κράτος, kratos 'rule') is a form of government that places strength in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class.
The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning 'rule of the best-born'.

The term is synonymous with hereditary government, and hereditary succession is its primary philosophy, after which the hereditary monarch appoints officers as they see fit.
At the time of the word's origins in ancient Greece, the Greeks conceived it as rule by the best qualified citizens—and often contrasted it favourably with monarchy, rule by an individual.
In later times, aristocracy was usually seen as rule by a privileged group, the aristocratic class, and has since been contrasted with democracy.
The idea of hybrid forms which have aspects of both aristocracy and democracy are in use in the parliament form.

Contents
1 Concept

For more information, see Aristocracy .
Political system From Wikipedia:
In geopolitics, a political system defines the process for making official government decisions.
It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems.
However, this is a very simplified view of a much more complex system of categories involving the questions of who should have authority and what the government influence on its people and economy should.

Contents
1 Anthropological forms
2 Sociology

For more information, see Political system .
Local government From Wikipedia:
A local government is a form of public administration which, in a majority of contexts, exists as the lowest tier of administration within a given state.
The term is used to contrast with offices at state level, which are referred to as the central government, national government, or (where a ppropriate) federal government and also to supranational government which deals with governing institutions between states.
Local governments generally act within powers delegated to them by legislation or directives of the higher level of government.
In federal states, local government generally comprises the third (or sometimes fourth) tier of government, whereas in unitary states, local government usually occupies the second or third tier of government, often with greater powers than higher-level administrative divisions.

The question of municipal autonomy is a key question of public administration and governance.
The institutions of local government vary greatly between countries, and even where similar arrangements exist, the terminology often varies.
Common names for local government entities include state, province, region, department, county, prefecture, district, city, township, town, borough, parish, municipality, shire, village, and local service district.

Contents
1 Africa
1.1 Egypt
1.2 Mali
1.3 South Africa
2 Asia
2.1 Afghanistan
2.2 Bangladesh
2.3 Brunei Darussalam
2.4 India
2.5 Indonesia
2.6 Israel
2.7 Japan
2.8 Malaysia
2.9 Nepal
2.10 Pakistan
2.11 Palestinian Authority
2.12 Philippines
2.13 Saudi Arabia
2.14 Taiwan
2.15 Thailand
2.16 Turkey
2.17 Vietnam
3 Europe
3.1 Albania
3.2 Andorra
3.3 Bulgaria
3.4 Croatia
3.5 Czech Republic
3.6 Denmark
3.7 Estonia
3.8 Finland
3.9 France
3.10 Germany
3.11 Greece
3.12 Hungary
3.13 Iceland
3.14 Ireland
3.15 Isle of Man
3.16 Italy
3.17 Latvia
3.18 Liechtenstein
3.19 Lithuania
3.20 Malta
3.21 Netherlands
3.22 Norway
3.23 Portugal
3.24 Poland
3.25 Spain
3.26 Sweden
3.27 Ukraine
3.28 United Kingdom
3.28.1 England
3.28.2 Northern Ireland
3.28.3 Scotland
3.28.4 Wales
4 North America
4.1 Canada
4.2 Mexico
4.3 United States
5 Oceania
5.1 Australia
5.2 New Zealand
6 South America
6.1 Argentina
6.2 Brazil
6.3 Paraguay
6.4 Peru
6.5 Uruguay

For more information, see Local government .
Deep state From Wikipedia:
A deep state (from Turkish: derin devlet), also known as a state within a state, is a form of clandestine government made up of hidden or covert networks of power operating independently of a state's political leadership, in pursuit of their own agenda and goals.
Examples include organs of state, such as the armed forces or public authorities (intelligence agencies, police, secret police, administrative agencies, and government bureaucracy).
A deep state can also take the form of entrenched, career civil servants acting in a non-conspiratorial manner, to further their own interests.
The intent of a deep state can include continuity of the state itself, job security for its members, enhanced power and authority, and the pursuit of ideological objectives.
It can operate in opposition to the agenda of elected officials, by obstructing, resisting, and subverting their policies, conditions and directives.
It can also take the form of government-owned corporations or private companies that act independently of regulatory or governmental control.

Contents
1 Overview
2 Cases
2.1 Soviet Union and post-Soviet Russia
2.1.1 Chechnya
2.2 United Kingdom
2.3 United States
2.4 Venezuela
2.5 Italy
2.6 Other alleged cases
2.6.1 Africa
2.6.2 Central and South America
2.6.3 Germany
2.6.4 Turkey and the Ottoman Empire
2.7 Other places

For more information, see Deep state .
The Establishment From Wikipedia:
The Establishment is a dominant group or élite that holds power or authority in a nation or in an organisation.
It may comprise a closed social group which selects its own members, or specific entrenched élite structures, either in government or in specific institutions.

The American Sociological Association states that the term is often used by those protesting a small group that dominates a larger organisation.
For example, in 1968, a group of academics formed the "Sociology Liberation Movement" (SLM) in order to repudiate the leadership of the American Sociological Association itself, which the SLM referred to as the "Establishment in American sociology".

In fact, one can refer to any relatively small class or group of people that can exercise control as The Establishment.
Conversely, in the jargon of sociology, anyone who does not belong to The Establishment may be labelled an "outsider" (as opposed to an "insider").

Anti-authoritarian and anti-establishment ideologies tend to paint establishments as illegitimate.

Contents
1 United Kingdom
2 Australia
3 Canada
4 Ireland
5 Hong Kong and Macau
6 Pakistan
7 United States

For more information, see The Establishment .
Ministry (collective executive) From Wikipedia:
In constitutional usage in Commonwealth realms and in some other systems, a ministry (usually preceded by the definite article, i.e., the ministry) is a collective body of government ministers headed by a prime minister or premier, and also referred to as the head of government.
It is described by the Oxford Dictionary as "a period of government under one prime minister".
Although the term "cabinet" can in some circumstances be a synonym, a ministry can be a broader concept which might include office-holders who do not participate in cabinet meetings.
Other titles can include "administration" (in the United States) or "government" (in common usage among most parliamentary systems) to describe similar collectives.

The term is primarily used to describe the successive governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, which share a common parliamentary political heritage.
In the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, a new ministry begins after each election, regardless of whether the prime minister is re-elected, and whether there may have been a minor rearrangement of the ministry.
For example, after winning the 1979 general election, Margaret Thatcher (as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom) formed the first Thatcher ministry. After being re-elected at the 1983 general election, she formed the second Thatcher ministry, and so on.
In Canada, a new ministry is only formed if the government loses an election.

Despite the use of the term "ministry" in this sense being rare in Portugal nowadays, until the first half of the 20th century, the term was frequently used in this country to designate the collective body of government ministers.
From 1911 to 1933, the official title of the Prime Minister of Portugal was even that of "President of the Ministry" (Portuguese: Presidente do Ministério), reflecting his role as the head of the collective ministry.

For more information, see Ministry (collective executive) .
List of European Union member states by political system From Wikipedia:
This is a list of European Union member states, their forms of government and their parliaments.
The European Union (EU) is a sui generis supranational union of democratic states.
At a European Council Summit held in Copenhagen, Denmark, on 21 June and 22 June 1993, the European Union defined the Copenhagen criteria regarding the conditions a candidate country has to fulfill to be considered eligible for accession to the European Union:

“ Membership criteria require that the candidate country must have achieved:
stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights and respect for and protection of minorities;
the existence of a functioning market economy as well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union;
the ability to take on the obligations of membership including adherence to the aims of political, economic and monetary union.
”

Consequently, all European Union member states are directly elected democracies that are considered to be "free" according to the criteria of Freedom House.
As of 2015, all European Union member states are representative democracies; however, they do not all have the same political system, with most of the differences arising from different historical backgrounds.

Many of the states in the neighbourhood of the European Union are not considered to be "free" by the same criteria.
Most European states neighbouring the European Union are considered to be "free" or "partly free" by Freedom House, with the exceptions of Azerbaijan, Belarus and Russia.
On the other hand, almost all of the states in North Africa and Southwest Asia that neighbour the European Union are not considered to be "free", with the exceptions of Israel and Tunisia.

Contents
1 Monarchism and republicanism
2 Form of government
3 Degree of self-governance
4 Parliamentary chambers
5 Listed by form of government
6 Listed by type of parliament

For more information, see List of European Union member states by political system .
List of countries by system of government From Wikipedia:
This is a list of countries by system of government.
There is also a political mapping of the world that shows what form of government each country has, as well as a brief description of what each form of government entails.
The list is colour-coded according to the type of government, for example: blue represents a republic with an executive head of state, and pink is a constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial head of state.
The colour-coding also appears on the following map, representing the same government categories.
The legend of what the different colours represent is found just below the map.

Contents
1 List of countries
1.1 UN member states and observers
1.2 Partially recognized states
1.3 Unrecognized states
1.4 Map
1.4.1 Legend
2 Systems of governance
2.1 Presidential systems
2.1.1 Presidential systems without a prime minister
2.1.2 Presidential systems with a prime minister
2.2 Semi-presidential systems
2.2.1 Premier-presidential systems
2.2.2 President-parliamentary systems
2.3 Parliamentary systems
2.3.1 Full parliamentary republican systems
2.3.2 Mixed parliamentary republican systems
2.3.3 Directorial republican systems
2.4 Constitutional monarchies
2.4.1 Constitutional monarchies with ceremonial/non executive monarchs
2.4.2 Constitutional monarchies with active monarchs
2.5 Absolute monarchies
2.6 One-party states
2.7 Military dictatorships
2.8 Transitional governments
3 Systems of internal structure
3.1 Unitary states
3.1.1 Centralised unitary states
3.1.2 Regionalised unitary states
3.2 Federation
3.3 Confederation
4 European Union

For more information, see List of countries by system of government .

For more information, see
Forms of Government .

From Wikipedia:
Economic system
An economic system, or economic order, is a system of production, resource allocation and distribution of goods and services within a society or a given geographic area.
It includes the combination of the various institutions, agencies, entities, decision-making processes and patterns of consumption that comprise the economic structure of a given community.
As such, an economic system is a type of social system.
The mode of production is a related concept.
All economic systems have three basic questions to ask: what to produce, how to produce and in what quantities and who receives the output of production.

The study of economic systems includes how these various agencies and institutions are linked to one another, how information flows between them and the social relations within the system (including property rights and the structure of management).
The analysis of economic systems traditionally focused on the dichotomies and comparisons between market economies and planned economies and on the distinctions between capitalism and socialism.
Subsequently, the categorization of economic systems expanded to include other topics and models that do not conform to the traditional dichotomy.
Today the dominant form of economic organization at the world level is based on market-oriented mixed economies.

Contents
1 Overview
2 Components
3 Typology
3.1 By resource allocation mechanism
3.2 By ownership of the means of production
3.3 By political ideologies
3.4 By other criteria
4 Main types
4.1 Capitalism
4.2 Mixed economy
4.3 Socialism
5 Evolutionary economics
6 Context in society
7 List of economic systems

Agrarian economy From Wikipedia:
An agrarian society, or agricultural society, is any community whose economy is based on producing and maintaining crops and farmland.
Another way to define an agrarian society is by seeing how much of a nation's total production is in agriculture.
In an agrarian society, cultivating the land is the primary source of wealth. Such a society may acknowledge other means of livelihood and work habits but stresses the importance of agriculture and farming.
Agrarian societies have existed in various parts of the world as far back as 10,000 years ago and continue to exist today.
They have been the most common form of socio-economic organization for most of recorded human history.

Contents
1 History
1.1 In the modern world
2 Demographics
3 Social organization
4 Energy
5 Agrarianism

For more information, see Agrarian economy .
Capitalism From Wikipedia:
Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit.
Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system and competitive markets.
In a capitalist market economy, decision-making and investments are determined by every owner of wealth, property or production ability in financial and capital markets, whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets.

Economists, political economists, sociologists and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice.
These include laissez-faire or free-market capitalism, welfare capitalism and state capitalism.
Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition and state-sanctioned social policies.
The degree of competition in markets, the role of intervention and regulation, and the scope of state ownership vary across different models of capitalism.
The extent to which different markets are free as well as the rules defining private property are matters of politics and policy.
Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies which combine elements of free markets with state intervention and in some cases economic planning.

Market economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures.
Modern capitalist societies—marked by a universalization of money-based social relations, a consistently large and system-wide class of workers who must work for wages, and a capitalist class which owns the means of production—developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution.
Capitalist systems with varying degrees of direct government intervention have since become dominant in the Western world and continue to spread.
Over time, capitalist countries have experienced consistent economic growth and an increase in the standard of living.

Critics of capitalism argue that it establishes power in the hands of a minority capitalist class that exists through the exploitation of the majority working class and their labor; prioritizes profit over social good, natural resources and the environment; and is an engine of inequality, corruption and economic instabilities.
Supporters argue that it provides better products and innovation through competition, disperses wealth to all productive people, promotes pluralism and decentralization of power, creates strong economic growth and yields productivity and prosperity that greatly benefit society.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Agrarian capitalism
2.2 Mercantilism
2.3 Industrial capitalism
2.4 Modern capitalism
2.4.1 Relationship to democracy
2.5 Varieties of capitalism
3 Characteristics
3.1 Market
3.2 Profit motive
3.3 Private property
3.4 Market competition
3.5 Economic growth
3.6 As a mode of production
4 Supply and demand
4.1 Graphical representation of supply and demand
4.1.1 Supply schedule
4.1.2 Demand schedule
4.2 Equilibrium
4.3 Partial equilibrium
4.4 Empirical estimation
4.5 Macroeconomic uses of demand and supply
4.6 History
5 Role of government
5.1 Relationship to political freedom
6 Types of capitalism
6.1 Advanced capitalism
6.2 Finance capitalism
6.3 Mercantilism
6.4 Free-market economy
6.5 Social market economy
6.6 State capitalism
6.7 Corporate capitalism
6.8 Mixed economy
6.9 Others
7 Capital accumulation
7.1 Background
7.2 Concentration and centralisation
7.3 Rate of accumulation
7.4 Circuit of capital accumulation from production
7.5 Simple and expanded reproduction
7.6 Capital accumulation as social relation
8 Wage labour
8.1 Types
9 Effects of war
10 Criticism
10.1 Profit motive
10.2 Comparison to slavery
10.3 Marxian responses
10.4 Criticism on the environmental sustainability of capitalism
10.5 Supply and demand
10.6 Externalities
10.7 Counter-criticism
10.7.1 Austrian School
10.7.2 Ayn Rand

For more information, see Capitalism .
Circular economy From Wikipedia:
A circular economy (often referred to simply as "circularity") is an economic system aimed at minimizing waste and making the most of resources.
In a circular system resource input and waste, emission, and energy leakage are minimized by slowing, closing, and narrowing energy and material loops; this can be achieved through long-lasting design, maintenance, repair, reuse, remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling.
This regenerative approach is in contrast to the traditional linear economy, which has a 'take, make, dispose' model of production.

Proponents of the circular economy suggest that a sustainable world does not mean a drop in the quality of life for consumers, and can be achieved without loss of revenue or extra costs for manufacturers.
The argument is that circular business models can be as profitable as linear models, allowing us to keep enjoying similar products and services.

Contents
1 Sustainability
1.1 Scope
1.2 Beginning of the Circular Economy
1.3 Emergence of the idea
1.4 Moving away from the linear model
2 Towards the circular economy
2.1 Platform for Accelerating the Circular Economy (PACE)
2.2 Circular economy standard BS 8001:2017
2.3 Circular business models
3 Industries adopting a circular economy
3.1 Textile industry
3.2 Construction industry
3.3 Logistics industry
4 Strategic management and the circular economy
5 Impact in Europe
6 Related concepts
6.1 Biomimicry
6.2 Blue economy
6.3 Cradle to cradle
6.4 Industrial ecology
6.5 Resource recovery
6.6 Systems thinking
6.7 "The Biosphere Rules"

For more information, see Circular economy .
Collectivism From Wikipedia:
Collectivism is a value that is characterized by emphasis on cohesiveness among individuals and prioritization of the group over the self.
Individuals or groups that subscribe to a collectivist worldview tend to find common values and goals as particularly salient and demonstrate greater orientation toward in-group than toward out-group.
The term "in-group" is thought to be more diffusely defined for collectivist individuals to include societal units ranging from the nuclear family to a religious or racial/ethnic group.

Contents
1 Origins and historical perspectives
2 Terminology and measurement
3 Theoretical models
4 Macro-level effects

For more information, see Collectivism .
Communism From Wikipedia:
In political and social sciences, communism (from Latin communis, "common, universal") is the philosophical, social, political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of the communist society, which is a socioeconomic order structured upon the common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money, and the state.

Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism and anarchism (anarcho-communism), as well as the political ideologies grouped around both.
All of these share the analysis that the current order of society stems from its economic system, capitalism; that in this system there are two major social classes; that conflict between these two classes is the root of all problems in society; and that this situation will ultimately be resolved through a social revolution.
The two classes are the working class—who must work to survive and who make up the majority within society—and the capitalist class—a minority who derives profit from employing the working class through private ownership of the means of production.
The revolution will put the working class in power and in turn establish social ownership of the means of production, which according to this analysis is the primary element in the transformation of society towards communism.
Critics of communism can be roughly divided into those concerning themselves with the practical aspects of 20th century communist states and those concerning themselves with communist principles and theory.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Early communism
1.2 Communism in the Soviet Union
1.3 Cold War
1.4 Dissolution of the Soviet Union
1.5 Present situation
2 Marxist communism
2.1 Marxism
2.2 Leninism
2.3 Marxism–Leninism, Stalinism, Trotskyism, and Maoism
2.3.1 Marxism–Leninism and Stalinism
2.3.2 Trotskyism
2.3.3 Maoism
2.4 Libertarian Marxism
2.5 Council communism
2.6 Eurocommunism
2.7 Left communism
3 Non-Marxist communism
3.1 Anarcho-communism
3.2 Christian communism
4 Criticism

For more information, see Communism .
Corporatism From Wikipedia:
Corporatism is a political ideology which advocates the organization of society by corporate groups, such as agricultural, labour, military, scientific, or guild associations on the basis of their common interests.
The idea is that when each group performs its designated function, society will function harmoniously — like a human body (corpus) from which its name derives.

Corporatist ideas have been expressed since Ancient Greek and Roman societies, with integration into Catholic social teaching and Christian democracy political parties.
They have been paired by various advocates and implemented in various societies with a wide variety of political systems, including authoritarianism, absolutism, fascism, liberalism and socialism.

Corporatism may also refer to economic tripartism involving negotiations between labour and business interest groups and the government to establish economic policy.
This is sometimes also referred to as neo-corporatism and is associated with social democracy.

Contents
1 Kinship corporatism
2 Corporatism in the Roman Catholic Church
3 Politics and political economy
3.1 Communitarian corporatism
3.2 Absolutist corporatism
3.3 Progressive corporatism
3.4 Corporate solidarism
3.5 Liberal corporatism
3.6 Fascist corporatism
3.7 Neo-corporatism
3.8 Chinese corporatism
3.9 Russian corporatism

For more information, see Corporatism .
Corporate capitalism From Wikipedia:
In social science and economics, corporate capitalism is a capitalist marketplace characterized by the dominance of hierarchical and bureaucratic corporations.

Contents
1 Overview
1.1 Corporate power
2 Criticisms

For more information, see Corporate capitalism.
Crony capitalism From Wikipedia:
Crony capitalism is an economy in which businesses thrive not as a result of risk, but rather as a return on money amassed through a nexus between a business class and the political class.
This is often achieved by using state power rather than competition in managing permits, government grants, tax breaks, or other forms of state intervention over resources where the state exercises monopolist control over public goods, for example, mining concessions for primary commodities or contracts for public works.
Money is then made not merely by making a profit in the market, but through profiteering by rent seeking using this monopoly or oligopoly.
Entrepreneurship and innovative practices which seek to reward risk are stifled since the value-added is little by crony businesses, as hardly anything of significant value is created by them, with transactions taking the form of trading.
Crony capitalism spills over into the government, the politics, and the media, when this nexus distorts the economy and affects society to an extent it corrupts public-serving economic, political, and social ideals.

Contents
1 Historical Usage
2 In practice
2.1 Crony capitalism index
3 In finance
4 In sections of an economy
5 In developing economies
6 Political viewpoints
6.1 Socialist critique
6.2 Capitalist critique

For more information, see Crony capitalism .
Digital economy From Wikipedia:
Digital economy refers to an economy that is based on digital computing technologies, although we increasingly perceive this as conducting business through markets based on the internet and the World Wide Web.
The digital economy is also sometimes called the Internet Economy, New Economy, or Web Economy.
Increasingly, the digital economy is intertwined with the traditional economy, making a clear delineation harder.

Contents
1 Definition
2 Impact
3 Response
4 Energy use
5 Cashless society

For more information, see Digital economy .
Dirigisme From Wikipedia:
Dirigisme or dirigism (from French diriger, meaning 'to direct') is an economic doctrine in which the state plays a strong directive role, as opposed to a merely regulatory role, over a capitalist market economy.
As an economic doctrine, dirigisme is the opposite to laissez-faire, stressing a positive role for state intervention in curbing productive inefficiencies and market failures.
Dirigiste policies often include indicative planning, state-directed investment, and the use of market instruments (taxes and subsidies).

The term emerged in the post-war era to describe the economic policies of France, which included substantial state-directed investment, the use of indicative economic planning to supplement the market mechanism, and the establishment of state enterprises in strategic domestic sectors.
It resulted in an unprecedented economic and demographic growth[dubious – discuss], leading to the coinage of the term Trente Glorieuses ("Thirty Glorious [years]").

The term has subsequently been used to classify other economies that pursued similar policies, most notably the East Asian tiger economies, and more recently the economy of the People's Republic of China.[2] A related concept is state capitalism.

Most modern economies can be characterized as dirigiste to some degree – for instance, the state may exercise directive action by performing or subsidizing research and development of new technologies, through government procurement (especially military) or through state-run research institutes.

Contents
1 In France
1.1 Indicative planning
1.2 State ownership
2 Other economies with dirigiste characteristics
3 See also
3.1 Economies with dirigisme or similar policies

For more information, see Dirigisme .
Distributism From Wikipedia:
Distributism is an economic ideology asserting that the world's productive assets should be widely owned rather than concentrated.
It was developed in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries based upon the principles of Catholic social teaching, especially the teachings of Pope Leo XIII in his encyclical Rerum novarum (1891) and Pope Pius XI in Quadragesimo anno (1931).
It views both capitalism and socialism as equally flawed and exploitative, and it favors economic mechanisms such as small-scale cooperatives and family businesses, and large-scale antitrust regulations.

Some Christian Democratic political parties have advocated distributism in their economic policies.

Contents
1 Overview
2 Background
3 Position within the political spectrum
4 Economic theory
4.1 Private property
4.2 Guild system
4.3 Banks
4.4 Antitrust legislation
4.5 Social credit
5 Social theory
5.1 Human family
5.2 Subsidiarity
5.3 Social security
5.4 Society of artisans
6 Geopolitical theory
6.1 Political order
6.2 Political parties
6.3 War
7 Influence
7.1 E. F. Schumacher
7.2 Mondragon Corporation
7.3 Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic
7.4 Big Society
8 Notable distributists
8.1 Contemporary
9 Key texts

For more information, see Distributism .
Economic interventionism From Wikipedia:
Economic interventionism, sometimes also called economic statism and state interventionism, is an economic policy perspective favoring government intervention in the market process to correct the market failures and promote the general welfare of the people.
An economic intervention is an action taken by a government or international institution in a market economy in an effort to impact the economy beyond the basic regulation of fraud and enforcement of contracts and provision of public goods.
Economic intervention can be aimed at a variety of political or economic objectives, such as promoting economic growth, increasing employment, raising wages, raising or reducing prices, promoting income equality, managing the money supply and interest rates, increasing profits, or addressing market failures.

The term intervention assumes on a philosophical level that the state and economy should be inherently separated from each other; therefore the terminology applies to capitalist market-based economies where government action interrupts the market forces at play through regulations, economic policies or subsidies (state-owned enterprises that operate in the market do not constitute an intervention).
The term intervention is typically used by advocates of laissez-faire and free markets.
Capitalist market economies that feature high degrees of state intervention are often referred to as mixed economies.

Contents
1 Political perspectives
2 Effects
3 United States government interventions

For more information, see Economic interventionism .
Economic liberalism From Wikipedia:
Economic liberalism is an economic system organized on individual lines, meaning that the greatest possible number of economic decisions are made by individuals or households rather than by collective institutions or organizations.
It includes a spectrum of different economic policies such as freedom of movement, but its basis is on strong support for a market economy and private property in the means of production.
Although economic liberals can also be supportive of government regulation to a certain degree, they tend to oppose government intervention in the free market when it inhibits free trade and open competition.

Economic liberalism is associated with free markets and private ownership of capital assets.
Historically, economic liberalism arose in response to mercantilism and feudalism.
Today, economic liberalism is also considered opposed to non-capitalist economic orders such as socialism and planned economies.
It also contrasts with protectionism because of its support for free trade and open markets.

An economy that is managed according to these precepts may be described as a liberal economy.

Contents
1 Origins
1.1 Position on state interventionism

For more information, see Economic liberalism .
Free market From Wikipedia:
In economics, a free market is a system in which the prices for goods and services are determined by the open market and by consumers.
In a free market, the laws and forces of supply and demand are free from any intervention by a government or other authority and from all forms of economic privilege, monopolies and artificial scarcities.
Proponents of the concept of free market contrast it with a regulated market in which a government intervenes in supply and demand through various methods such as tariffs used to restrict trade and to protect the local economy.
In an idealized free-market economy, prices for goods and services are set freely by the forces of supply and demand and are allowed to reach their point of equilibrium without intervention by government policy.

Scholars contrast the concept of a free market with the concept of a coordinated market in fields of study such as political economy, new institutional economics, economic sociology and political science.
All of these fields emphasize the importance in currently existing market systems of rule-making institutions external to the simple forces of supply and demand which create space for those forces to operate to control productive output and distribution.
Although free markets are commonly associated with capitalism within a market economy in contemporary usage and popular culture, free markets have also been advocated by anarchists, socialists and some proponents of cooperatives and advocates of profit sharing.
Criticism of the theoretical concept may regard systems with significant market power, inequality of bargaining power, or information asymmetry as less than free, with regulation being necessary to control those imbalances in order to allow markets to function more efficiently as well as produce more desirable social outcomes.

Contents
1 Economic systems
1.1 Laissez-faire economics
1.2 Socialist economics
1.3 Georgist economics
1.4 Non-laissez-faire capitalist systems
2 Concepts
2.1 Perfect competition and market failure
2.2 Supply and demand
2.3 Economic equilibrium
2.4 Low barriers to entry
2.5 Spontaneous order
2.6 General principles
3 Criticism

For more information, see Free market .
Free trade From Wikipedia:
Free trade is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports; it can also be understood as the free market idea applied to international trade.
In government, free trade is predominantly advocated by political parties that hold liberal economic positions while economically left-wing and nationalist political parties generally support protectionism, the opposite of free trade.

Most nations are today members of the World Trade Organization multilateral trade agreements.
Free trade was best exemplified by the unilateral stance of Great Britain who reduced regulations and duties on imports and exports from the mid nineteenth century to the 1920s.
An alternative approach, of creating free trade areas between groups of countries by agreement, such as that of the European Economic Area and the Mercosur open markets, creates a protectionist barrier between that free trade area and the rest of the world.
Most governments still impose some protectionist policies that are intended to support local employment, such as applying tariffs to imports or subsidies to exports.
Governments may also restrict free trade to limit exports of natural resources.
Other barriers that may hinder trade include import quotas, taxes and non-tariff barriers, such as regulatory legislation.

There is a broad consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth.
However, liberalization of trade can cause significant and unequally distributed losses, and the economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors.

Contents
1 Features
2 Economics
2.1 Economic models
2.1.1 Tariffs
2.2 Trade diversion
2.3 Economist opinions
3 History
3.1 Early era
3.2 Post-World War II
3.3 Modern era
3.3.1 Degree of free trade policies
3.3.1.1 Free trade in goods
4 Politics
4.1 Colonialism
5 Alternatives
6 In literature

For more information, see Free trade .
Green economy From Wikipedia:
The green economy is defined as economy that aims at reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities, and that aims for sustainable development without degrading the environment.
It is closely related with ecological economics, but has a more politically applied focus.
The 2011 UNEP Green Economy Report argues "that to be green, an economy must not only be efficient, but also fair.
Fairness implies recognizing global and country level equity dimensions, particularly in assuring a just transition to an economy that is low-carbon, resource efficient, and socially inclusive."

A feature distinguishing it from prior economic regimes is the direct valuation of natural capital and ecological services as having economic value (see The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity and Bank of Natural Capital) and a full cost accounting regime in which costs externalized onto society via ecosystems are reliably traced back to, and accounted for as liabilities of, the entity that does the harm or neglects an asset.

Green Sticker and ecolabel practices have emerged as consumer facing measurements of friendliness to the environment and sustainable development.
Many industries are starting to adopt these standards as a viable way to promote their greening practices in a globalizing economy.

Contents
1 "Green" economists and economics
2 Definition
3 Ecological measurements
4 Green energy issues
5 Criticisms

For more information, see Green economy .
Hydraulic empire From Wikipedia:
A hydraulic empire (also known as a hydraulic despotism, or water monopoly empire) is a social or government structure which maintains power and control through exclusive control over access to water.
It arises through the need for flood control and irrigation, which requires central coordination and a specialized bureaucracy.

Often associated with these terms and concepts is the notion of a water dynasty.
This body is a political structure which is commonly characterized by a system of hierarchy and control often based on class or caste.
Power, both over resources (food, water, energy) and a means of enforcement such as the military, is vital for the maintenance of control.

Contents
1 Civilizations
2 Analysis
3 In fiction

For more information, see Hydraulic empire .
Inclusive Democracy From Wikipedia:
Inclusive Democracy (ID) is a project that aims for direct democracy; economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy; self-management (democracy in the social realm); and ecological democracy.

The theoretical project of Inclusive Democracy—as distinguished from the political project on which the ID movement is based—emerged from the work of Greek-born political philosopher, economist, activist and former academic Takis Fotopoulos, in the book Towards An Inclusive Democracy, and was further developed by him and other writers in the journal Democracy & Nature and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy, an electronic journal published by the International Network for Inclusive Democracy.
In other words, the theoretical project of ID is a project emerging in Political Philosophy about social change (see e.g. Marxism, Social Ecology project, the autonomy project, the Inclusive Democracy project, etc.).
On the other hand, the political project of ID (as any political project for social emancipation) is a project emerging in the History of social struggle (e.g. along socialist movement, autonomist movement, classical (direct) democracy movement, etc.).

According to Arran Gare, Towards an Inclusive Democracy "offers a powerful new interpretation of the history and destructive dynamics of the market and provides an inspiring new vision of the future in place of both neo-liberalism and existing forms of socialism".
David Freeman argues that Fotopoulos' approach in that book "is not openly anarchism, yet anarchism seems the formal category within which he works, given his commitment to direct democracy, municipalism and abolition of state, money and market economy".

Contents
1 Conception of Inclusive Democracy
2 Institutional framework
2.1 Political or direct democracy
2.2 Economic democracy and the role of an artificial market
2.2.1 Artificial market
2.3 Democracy in the social realm
2.4 Ecological democracy
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
5.1 Books
5.2 Essays
5.2.1 Introductory essays
5.2.2 Debate on the ID project
5.2.3 ID and education
5.2.4 ID and the New World Order
5.2.5 ID and feminism
5.2.6 ID on Marxism and anarchism
5.2.7 ID on irrationalism
5.3 Dialogues on ID
5.3.1 Dialogue with ecologists
5.3.2 Dialogue with pareconists
5.3.3 Dialogue with Castoriadians
5.4 Videos

For more information, see Inclusive Democracy .
Indicative planning From Wikipedia:
Indicative planning is a form of economic planning implemented by a state in an effort to solve the problem of imperfect information in market and mixed economies in order to increase economic performance.
However, indicative planning takes only endogenous market uncertainty into account, plans the economy accordingly, and does not look into exogenous uncertainty like technology, foreign trade, etc.
When utilizing indicative planning, the state employs "influence, subsidies, grants, and taxes [to affect the economy], but does not compel".
Indicative planning is contrasted with directive or mandatory planning, where a state (or other economic unit) sets quotas and mandatory output requirements.
Planning by inducement is often referred to as indicative planning.

Contents
1 In practice
1.1 France
1.2 People's Republic of China
1.3 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
1.4 Japan
2 National economic planning

For more information, see Indicative planning .
Industrial organization From Wikipedia:
In economics, industrial organization or industrial economy is a field that builds on the theory of the firm by examining the structure of (and, therefore, the boundaries between) firms and markets.
Industrial organization adds real-world complications to the perfectly competitive model, complications such as transaction costs, limited information, and barriers to entry of new firms that may be associated with imperfect competition.
It analyzes determinants of firm and market organization and behavior as between competition and monopoly, including from government actions.

There are different approaches to the subject.
One approach is descriptive in providing an overview of industrial organization, such as measures of competition and the size-concentration of firms in an industry.
A second approach uses microeconomic models to explain internal firm organization and market strategy, which includes internal research and development along with issues of internal reorganization and renewal.
A third aspect is oriented to public policy as to economic regulation, antitrust law, and, more generally, the economic governance of law in defining property rights, enforcing contracts, and providing organizational infrastructure.

The extensive use of game theory in industrial economics has led to the export of this tool to other branches of microeconomics, such as behavioral economics and corporate finance.
Industrial organization has also had significant practical impacts on antitrust law and competition policy.

The development of industrial organization as a separate field owes much to Edward Chamberlin, Joan Robinson, Edward S. Mason, J. M. Clark, Joe S. Bain and Paolo Sylos Labini, among others.

Contents
1 Subareas
2 Market structures
3 Areas of study
4 History of the field

For more information, see Industrial organization .
Information economy From Wikipedia:
Information economy is an economy with an increased emphasis on informational activities and information industry.

Manuel Castells states that information economy is not mutually exclusive with manufacturing economy.
He finds that some countries such as Germany and Japan exhibit the informatization of manufacturing processes.
In a typical conceptualization, however, information economy is considered a "stage" or "phase" of an economy, coming after stages of hunting, agriculture, and manufacturing.
This conceptualization can be widely observed regarding information society, a closely related but wider concept.

There are numerous characterizations of the transformations some economies have undergone.
Service economy, high-tech economy, late-capitalism, post-Fordism, and global economy are among the most frequently used terms, having some overlaps and contradictions among themselves.
Closer terms to information economy would include knowledge economy and post-industrial economy.

For more information, see Information economy .
Knowledge economy From Wikipedia:
The knowledge economy is the use of knowledge to create goods and services.
In particular, it refers to a high portion of skilled workers in the economy of a locality, country, or the world, and the idea that most jobs require specialized skills.
In particular, the main personal capital of knowledge workers is knowledge, and many knowledge worker jobs require a lot of thinking and manipulating information as opposed to moving or crafting physical objects.
It stands in contrast to an agrarian economy (where the primary activity is subsistence farming for which the main requirement is manual labor) or an industrialized economy (which has mass production but where most jobs are relatively unskilled).
Knowledge economy emphasizes the importance of skills in a service economy, the third phase of economic development, also called a post-industrial economy.
It is related to the terms information economy, which emphasizes the importance of information as non-physical capital, and digital economy, which emphasize the degree to which information technology facilitates trade.
For companies, intellectual property such as trade secrets, copyrighted material, and patented processes become more valuable in a knowledge economy than in earlier eras.

The global economy transition to a knowledge economy is also referred to as the Information Age, bringing about an information society.
The term knowledge economy was popularized by Peter Drucker as the title of Chapter 12 in his book The Age of Discontinuity (1969), that Drucker attributed to economist Fritz Machlup, originating in the idea of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor.

Contents
1 Concepts
2 Evolution
3 Technology
3.1 Challenges for developing countries

For more information, see Knowledge economy .
Laissez-faire From Wikipedia:
Laissez-faire (/ˌlɛseɪˈfɛər/; French: [lɛsefɛʁ] (About this soundlisten); from French: laissez faire, lit. 'let do') is an economic system in which transactions between private parties are free from any form of government intervention such as regulation, privileges, imperialism, tariffs and subsidies.
Proponents of laissez faire argue for a complete separation of government from the economic sector.
The phrase laissez-faire is part of a larger French phrase and literally translates to "let (it/them) do", but in this context usually means "let go".

Laissez faire capitalism started being practiced in the mid 18th century, and was further popularized by Adam Smith's book, 'Wealth of Nations'.

Contents
1 Etymology and usage
2 Fundamentals
3 History of laissez-faire debate
3.1 Europe
3.2 United States
3.3 Laissez-faire socialism
4 Raw capitalism
5 Criticism

For more information, see Laissez-faire .
Market economy From Wikipedia:
A market economy is an economic system in which the decisions regarding investment, production and distribution are guided by the price signals created by the forces of supply and demand.
The major characteristic of a market economy is the existence of factor markets that play a dominant role in the allocation of capital and the factors of production.

Market economies range from minimally regulated free market and laissez-faire systems where state activity is restricted to providing public goods and services and safeguarding private ownership, to interventionist forms where the government plays an active role in correcting market failures and promoting social welfare.
State-directed or dirigist economies are those where the state plays a directive role in guiding the overall development of the market through industrial policies or indicative planning—which guides yet does not substitute the market for economic planning—a form sometimes referred to as a mixed economy.

Market economies are contrasted with planned economies where investment and production decisions are embodied in an integrated economy-wide economic plan.
In a planned economy, economic planning is the principal allocation mechanism between firms rather than markets, with the economy's means of production being owned and operated by a single organizational body.

Contents
1 Characteristics
1.1 Supply and demand
1.2 Property rights
2 Capitalism
2.1 Free-market economy
2.2 Laissez-faire
2.3 Welfare capitalism
2.4 Regional models
2.4.1 Anglo-Saxon model
2.4.2 East Asian model
2.4.3 Social market economy
3 Market socialism
3.1 Models of market socialism
3.2 Socialist market economy
4 In religion
4.1 Christianity
4.2 Buddhism
5 Criticism

For more information, see Market economy .
Market socialism From Wikipedia:
Market socialism is a type of economic system involving the public, cooperative or social ownership of the means of production in the framework of a market economy.
Market socialism differs from non-market socialism in that the market mechanism is utilized for the allocation of capital goods and the means of production.
Depending on the specific model of market socialism, profits generated by socially owned firms (i.e. net revenue not reinvested into expanding the firm) may variously be used to directly remunerate employees, accrue to society at large as the source of public finance or be distributed amongst the population in a social dividend.

Market socialism is distinguished from the concept of the mixed economy because unlike the mixed economy, models of market socialism are complete and self-regulating systems.
Market socialism also contrasts with social democratic policies implemented within capitalist market economies: while social democracy aims to achieve greater economic stability and equality through policy measures such as taxes, subsidies and social welfare programs, market socialism aims to achieve similar goals through changing patterns of enterprise ownership and management.

Although economic proposals involving social ownership with factor markets have existed since the early 19th century, the term "market socialism" only emerged in the 1920s during the socialist calculation debate.
Contemporary market socialism emerged from the debate on socialist calculation during the early-to-mid 20th century among socialist economists who believed that a socialist economy could neither function on the basis of calculation in natural units nor through solving a system of simultaneous equations for economic coordination, and that capital markets would be required in a socialist economy.

Early models of market socialism trace their roots to the work of Adam Smith and the theories of classical economics, which consisted of proposals for cooperative enterprises operating in a free-market economy.
The aim of such proposals was to eliminate exploitation by allowing individuals to receive the full product of their labor while removing the market-distorting effects of concentrating ownership and wealth in the hands of a small class of private owners.
Among early advocates of market socialism were the Ricardian socialist economists and mutualist philosophers.
In the early 20th century, Oskar Lange and Abba Lerner outlined a neoclassical model of socialism which included a role for a central planning board (CPB) in setting prices equal to marginal cost to achieve Pareto efficiency.
Even though these early models did not rely on genuine markets, they were labeled "market socialist" for their utilization of financial prices and calculation.
In more recent models proposed by American neoclassical economists, public ownership of the means of production is achieved through public ownership of equity and social control of investment.

Contents
1 Theoretical history
1.1 Classical economics
1.1.1 John Stuart Mill
1.1.2 Mutualism
1.1.3 American anarchism
1.2 Neoclassical economics
1.2.1 Early 20th century
1.2.2 Late 20th century
1.3 Anti-equilibrium economics
2 In practice
3 Relation to political ideologies
3.1 Marxism–Leninism
3.2 Socialism with Chinese characteristics
3.3 Democratic socialism
3.4 Anarchism

For more information, see Market socialism .
Mercantilism From Wikipedia:
Mercantilism is a national economic policy that is designed to maximize the exports of a nation.
Mercantilism was dominant in modernized parts of Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries, a period of proto-industrialization, before falling into decline, although some commentators argue that it is still practiced in the economies of industrializing countries, in the form of economic interventionism.

It promotes government regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers.
Mercantilism includes a national economic policy aimed at accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods.
Historically, such policies frequently led to war and also motivated colonial expansion.

Mercantilist theory varies in sophistication from one writer to another and has evolved over time.
High tariffs, especially on manufactured goods, were an almost universal feature of mercantilist policy.
These policies aim to reduce a possible current account deficit or reach a current account surplus.

With the efforts of supranational organizations such as the World Trade Organization to reduce tariffs globally, non-tariff barriers to trade have assumed a greater importance in neomercantilism.

Contents
1 History
2 Theory
3 Policies
3.1 France
3.2 New France
3.3 Great Britain
3.4 Other countries
4 Wars and imperialism
5 Origins
6 Criticisms
7 Legacy
8 Neomercantilism

For more information, see Mercantilism .
Mixed economy From Wikipedia:
A mixed economy is variously defined as an economic system blending elements of market economies with elements of planned economies, free markets with state interventionism, or private enterprise with public enterprise.
There is no single definition of a mixed economy, but rather two major definitions.
The first of these definitions refers to a mixture of markets with state interventionism, referring to capitalist market economies with strong regulatory oversight, interventionist policies and governmental provision of public services.
The second definition is political in nature and strictly refers to an economy containing a mixture of private enterprise with public enterprise.

In most cases, and particularly with reference to Western economies, the term "mixed economy" refers to a capitalist economy characterized by the predominance of private ownership of the means of production with profit-seeking enterprise and the accumulation of capital as its fundamental driving force.
In such a system, markets are subject to varying degrees of regulatory control and governments wield indirect macroeconomic influence through fiscal and monetary policies with a view to counteracting capitalism's history of boom/bust cycles, unemployment and income disparities.
In this framework, varying degrees of public utilities and essential services are provided by government, with state activity often limited to providing public goods and universal civic requirements - such as healthcare, physical infrastructure and management of public lands.
This contrasts with Laissez-faire capitalism, where state activity is limited to providing public goods and services as well as the infrastructure and legal framework to protect property rights and enforce contracts.

In reference to post-World War II Western European economic models as championed by Christian democrats and social democrats, the mixed economy is a form of capitalism where most industries are privately owned with only a small number of public utilities and essential services under public ownership.
In the post-war era, European social democracy became associated with this economic model, as evidenced by the implementation of the welfare state.

As an economic ideal, mixed economies are supported by people of various political persuasions, typically centre-left and centre-right, such as social democrats or Christian democrats.

Contents
1 Etymology
1.1 History
2 Political philosophy
2.1 Catholic social teaching
2.2 European social democracy
2.3 Fascism
2.4 Socialism
3 Typology
3.1 Mix of free markets and state intervention
3.2 Mix of private and public enterprise
3.3 Mix of markets and economic planning
4 Criticism

For more information, see Mixed economy .
Mutualism (economic theory) From Wikipedia:
Mutualism is a libertarian socialist economic theory and anarchist school of thought that advocates a society with free markets and occupation and use, i.e. usufruct property norms.
One implementation of this scheme involves the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration.
Mutualism is based on a version of the labor theory of value holding that when labor or its product is sold, it ought to receive in exchange goods or services embodying "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility".

Mutualism originated from the writings of philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Mutualists disagree with the idea of individuals receiving an income through loans, investments and rent as they believe these individuals are not laboring.
Although Proudhon opposed this type of income, he expressed that he had never intended "to forbid or suppress, by sovereign decree, ground rent and interest on capital.
I think that all these manifestations of human activity should remain free and voluntary for all: I ask for them no modifications, restrictions or suppressions, other than those which result naturally and of necessity from the universalization of the principle of reciprocity which I propose".
Insofar as they ensure the worker's right to the full product of their labor, mutualists support markets and property in the product of labor, differentiating between capitalist private property (productive property) and personal property (private property).
As a result, they argue for conditional titles to land, whose ownership is legitimate only so long as it remains in use or occupation (which Proudhon called possession), a type of private property with strong abandonment criteria.
This contrasts with capitalist non-proviso Lockean sticky property, where owners maintain title more or less until they consent to gift or sell it.

As libertarian socialists, they have distinguished mutualism from state socialism and do not advocate state control over the means of production.
Instead, each person possesses a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market.
Benjamin Tucker said of Proudhon that "though opposed to socializing the ownership of capital, he aimed nevertheless to socialize its effects by making its use beneficial to all instead of a means of impoverishing the many to enrich the few [...] by subjecting capital to the natural law of competition, thus bringing the price of its own use down to cost".

Although mutualism is similar to the economic doctrines of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists, it is in favor of large industries.
Mutualism has been retrospectively characterized sometimes as being a form of individualist anarchism and as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism as well.
Proudhon himself described the liberty he pursued as "the synthesis of communism and property".
As a result, some consider Proudhon to be an individualist anarchist while others regard him to be a social anarchist.

Contents
1 History
1.1 French origins
1.2 Ideological development
1.3 19th century Spain
1.4 Internationalism
1.5 Mutualism today
2 Theory
2.1 Contract and federation
2.2 Gradualism and dual power
2.3 Free association
2.4 Mutual credit
2.5 Property
3 Criticism

For more information, see Mutualism (economic theory) .
Natural economy From Wikipedia:
Natural economy refers to a type of economy in which money is not used in the transfer of resources among people.
It is a system of allocating resources through direct bartering, entitlement by law, or sharing out according to traditional custom.
In the more complex forms of natural economy, some goods may act as a referent for fair bartering, but generally currency plays only a small role in allocating resources.
As a corollary, the majority of goods produced in a system of natural economy are not produced for the purpose of exchanging them, but for direct consumption by the producers (subsistence).
As such, natural economies tend to be self-contained, where all the goods consumed are produced domestically.

The term has often been used in opposition to other forms of economy, most notably capitalism.
Rosa Luxemburg believed that the destruction of the natural economy was a necessary condition for the development of capitalism.
Karl Marx described the Inca Empire as a natural economy because it was both isolated and based around exchange rather than profit.

Other writers have used a more relative sense of natural economy.
Belgian economic historian Henri Pirenne noted that medieval Europe has often been described as a natural economy despite the existence of money, since money played a much less significant role than in earlier or later periods

For more information, see Natural economy .
Network economy From Wikipedia:
The network economy is the emerging economic order within the information society.
The name stems from a key attribute - products and services are created and value is added through social networks operating on large or global scales.
This is in sharp contrast to industrial-era economies, in which ownership of physical or intellectual property stems from its development by a single enterprise.
Business models for capturing ownership rights for value embedded in products and services created by social networks are being explored.

For more information, see Network economy .
Nordic model From Wikipedia:
The Nordic model comprises the economic and social policies, as well as typical cultural practices, common to the Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland, Finland, Norway, and Sweden).
This includes a comprehensive welfare state and multi-level collective bargaining, with a high percentage of the workforce unionised, while being based on the economic foundations of free market capitalism.
The Nordic model began to earn attention after World War II.

The Scandinavian countries were all monarchies, with Finland and Iceland becoming republics in the 20th century.
Currently, the Nordic countries have been described as being highly democratic.
Although there are significant differences among the Nordic countries, they all have some common traits.
These include support for a universalist welfare state aimed specifically at enhancing individual autonomy and promoting social mobility; a corporatist system involving a tripartite arrangement where representatives of labour and employers negotiate wages and labour market policy mediated by the government; and a commitment to private ownership (with some caveats), a mixed economy and free trade.

Each of the Nordic countries has its own economic and social models, sometimes with large differences from its neighbours.
As of 2018, all of the Nordic countries rank highly on the Inequality-adjusted HDI and the Global Peace Index.
In 2019, all five of the Nordic countries ranked in the top 10 on the World Happiness Report.

Contents
1 Overview
2 Aspects
2.1 Labour market policy
2.2 Economic system
2.2.1 Norway's particularities
2.3 Nordic welfare model
2.3.1 Poverty reduction
2.3.2 Gender equality
2.4 Religion as a factor
3 Reception
3.1 Misconceptions
4 Criticism
5 Political ideologies in the Nordic countries

For more information, see Nordic model .
Palace economy From Wikipedia:
A palace economy or redistribution economy is a system of economic organization in which a substantial share of the wealth flows into the control of a centralized administration, the palace, and out from there to the general population, which may be allowed its own sources of income but relies heavily on the wealth redistributed by the palace.
It was traditionally justified on the principle that the palace was most capable of distributing wealth efficiently for the benefit of society.

The concept of a redistribution system is at least as old as the advent of the pharaohs.
Much later, the New Testament describes a population of early Christian communities giving all they had to the patriarch, who would return what they needed to live; as there is no palace as such, this was similar to the equally ancient concept of a gift economy.
Anthropologists have noted many such systems, from those of tribesmen engaged in common subsistence economies of various sorts to complex civilizations, such as that of the Inca Empire, which assigned segments of the economy to specific villages.
The essence of the idea is that a central administration plans production, assigns elements of the population to carry it out, collects the goods and services thus created, and redistributes them to the producers.

A palace economy is a specific type of redistribution system in which the economic activities of the civilization are conducted on or near the premises of central administration complexes, the palaces of absolute monarchs.
It is the function of the palace administration to supply the producers with the capital goods for the production of further goods and services, which are regarded as the property of the monarch.
Typically this is not an altruistic undertaking.
The palace is primarily interested in the creation of capital, which may then be disposed of as the king pleases.
Some may become merchandising capital, to be sold or bartered for a profit, or some may be reinvested in further centers, including additional production facilities, wars (economic activities from which a profit is expected to be extracted), favorable alliances, fleets, and mastery of the seas.

In ancient palace systems, the producers were typically part of the working capital.
From highest to lowest, they were bound to the palace economy by indissoluble bonds of involuntary servitude or patronage.
Any investment in a war would be expected to bring a return of plunder and prisoners, which became part of the endowment of the palace complex.
The palace was responsible for meeting the expenses of the producers.
It had to provide food, clothing and shelter, which it often did on the premises, as in the case of female cloth manufacturers.

Contents
1 Origin of the term
2 Mediterranean and Middle Eastern Bronze Age
2.1 Cretan civilization
2.1.1 Minoan Crete
2.1.2 Mycenaean Crete
2.2 Other locations
3 Asia

For more information, see Palace economy .
Participatory economics From Wikipedia:
Participatory economics, often abbreviated ParEcon, is an economic system based on participatory decision making as the primary economic mechanism for allocation in society.
In the system, the say in decision-making is proportional to the impact on a person or group of people.
Participatory economics is a form of socialist decentralized planned economy involving the common ownership of the means of production.
It is a proposed alternative to contemporary capitalism and centralized planning.
This economic model is primarily associated with political theorist Michael Albert and economist Robin Hahnel, who describe participatory economics as an anarchist economic vision.

The underlying values that parecon seeks to implement are equity, solidarity, diversity, workers' self-management and efficiency (defined as accomplishing goals without wasting valued assets).
The institutions of parecon include workers' and consumers' councils utilizing self-managerial methods for decision-makings, balanced job complexes, remuneration based on individual effort, and wide participatory planning.

Contents
1 Decision-making principle
2 Production and work
2.1 Balanced job complexes
2.2 Compensation for effort and sacrifice
2.3 Workplace democracy
2.4 Scale
2.5 Innovation
3 Allocation
3.1 Facilitation boards
4 Opposition to central planning and capitalism
4.1 Critique of markets
4.2 Class and hierarchy
5 Limitations
6 Criticisms
6.1 Planning
6.2 Loss of efficiency
7 Influence

For more information, see Participatory economics .
Planned economy From Wikipedia:
A planned economy is a type of economic system where investment, production and the allocation of capital goods take place according to economy-wide economic and production plans.
A planned economy may use centralized, decentralized or participatory forms of economic planning.
Planned economies contrast with unplanned economies, specifically market economies, where autonomous firms operating in markets make decisions about production, distribution, pricing and investment.
Market economies that use indicative planning are sometimes referred to[by whom?] as planned market economies.

A command economy or administrative command economy describes a country using Soviet-type economic planning which was characteristic of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc before most of these countries converted to market economies.
These terms highlight the central role of hierarchical administration and public ownership of production in guiding the allocation of resources in these economic systems.
In command economies, important allocation decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.

Central planning has been used in the majority of countries adopting socialism including those based on the Soviet model, though a minority have adopted some degree of market socialism, such as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
Non-market socialism replaces factor markets with direct calculation as the means to coordinate the activities of the various socially owned economic enterprises that make up the economy.
More recent approaches to socialist planning and allocation have come from some economists and computer scientists proposing planning mechanisms based on advances in computer science and information technology.

Contents
1 Planned versus command economies
2 History
3 Advantages of economic planning
4 Disadvantages of economic planning
4.1 Inefficient resource distribution: surplus and shortage
4.2 Suppression of economic democracy and self-management
4.3 Economic instability
5 Relationship with socialism
6 Computational economic planning
7 Fictional portrayals of planned economies

For more information, see Planned economy .
Proprietism From Wikipedia:
Proprietism is an economic system composed of a vast network of sole-proprietorships.

Contents
1 Origins
2 Core Concepts

For more information, see Proprietism .
Protectionism From Wikipedia:
Protectionism is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas, and a variety of other government regulations.
Proponents claim that protectionist policies shield the producers, businesses, and workers of the import-competing sector in the country from foreign competitors.
However, they also reduce trade and adversely affect consumers in general (by raising the cost of imported goods), and harm the producers and workers in export sectors, both in the country implementing protectionist policies and in the countries protected against.

There is a consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade, deregulation, and the reduction of trade barriers has a significantly positive effect on economic growth.
Some scholars have implicated protectionism as the cause of some economic crises, most notably the Great Depression.
However, although trade liberalization can sometimes result in large and unequally distributed losses and gains, and can, in the short run, cause significant economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors, free trade has advantages of lowering costs of goods and services for both producers and consumers.

Contents
1 Protectionist policies
2 History
2.1 In the United States
2.2 In Europe
2.3 In Canada
2.4 In Latin America
3 Impact
3.1 Living standards
3.2 Growth
3.3 Developing world
3.4 Conflict
4 Current world trends

For more information, see Protectionism .
Socialism From Wikipedia:
Socialism is a range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production and workers' self-management, as well as the political theories and movements associated with them.
Social ownership can be public, collective or cooperative ownership, or citizen ownership of equity.
There are many varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them, with social ownership being the common element shared by its various forms.

Socialist systems are divided into non-market and market forms.
Non-market socialism involves replacing factor markets and money with engineering and technical criteria based on calculation performed in-kind, thereby producing an economic mechanism that functions according to different economic laws from those of capitalism.
Non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system.
By contrast, market socialism retains the use of monetary prices, factor markets and in some cases the profit motive, with respect to the operation of socially owned enterprises and the allocation of capital goods between them.
Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm, or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend.
The socialist calculation debate concerns the feasibility and methods of resource allocation for a socialist system.

Socialist politics has been both internationalist and nationalist in orientation; organised through political parties and opposed to party politics; at times overlapping with trade unions, and at other times independent and critical of unions; and present in both industrialised and developing nations.
Originating within the socialist movement, social democracy has embraced a mixed economy with a market that includes substantial state intervention in the form of income redistribution, regulation, and a welfare state.
Economic democracy proposes a sort of market socialism where there is more decentralised control of companies, currencies, investments, and natural resources.

The socialist political movement includes a set of political philosophies that originated in the revolutionary movements of the mid-to-late 18th century and out of concern for the social problems that were associated with capitalism.
By the late 19th century, after the work of Karl Marx and his collaborator Friedrich Engels, socialism had come to signify opposition to capitalism and advocacy for a post-capitalist system based on some form of social ownership of the means of production.
By the 1920s, social democracy and communism had become the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement.
By this time, socialism emerged as "the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide.
It is a political ideology (or world view), a wide and divided political movement" and while the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally socialist state led to socialism's widespread association with the Soviet economic model, some economists and intellectuals argued that in practice the model functioned as a form of state capitalism or a non-planned administrative or command economy.
Socialist parties and ideas remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence on all continents, heading national governments in many countries around the world.
Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of other social movements, such as environmentalism, feminism and progressivism.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Early socialism
2.1.1 Paris Commune
2.2 First International
2.3 Second International
2.4 Early 20th century
2.4.1 Russian Revolution
2.4.2 International Working Union of Socialist Parties
2.4.3 Third International
2.4.4 Fourth congress
2.4.5 Spanish Civil War
2.5 Mid-20th century
2.5.1 Post-World War II
2.5.2 Nordic model
2.5.3 Soviet Union and Eastern Europe
2.5.4 Third World
2.5.5 New Left
2.5.6 Protests of 1968
2.6 Late 20th century
3 Contemporary socialist politics
3.1 Africa
3.2 Asia
3.3 Europe
3.4 North America
3.5 Latin America and Caribbean
3.6 Oceania
3.7 International socialism
4 Social and political theory
4.1 Criticism of capitalism
4.2 Marxism
4.3 Role of the state
4.4 Utopian versus scientific
4.5 Reform versus revolution
5 Economics
5.1 Planned economy
5.2 Self-managed economy
5.3 State-directed economy
5.4 Market socialism
6 Politics
6.1 Anarchism
6.2 Democratic socialism
6.3 Leninism and precedents
6.4 Libertarian socialism
6.5 Religious socialism
6.6 Social democracy and liberal socialism
6.7 Socialism and modern progressive social movements
6.8 Syndicalism
7 Criticism

For more information, see Socialism .
Socialist economics From Wikipedia:
Socialist economics comprises the economic theories, practices, and norms of hypothetical and existing socialist economic systems.

A socialist economic system is characterised by social ownership and operation of the means of production that may take the form of autonomous cooperatives or direct public ownership wherein production is carried out directly for use.
Socialist systems that utilize markets for allocating inputs and capital goods among economic units are designated market socialism.
When planning is utilized, the economic system is designated as a socialist planned economy.
Non-market forms of socialism usually include a system of accounting based on calculation-in-kind to value resources and goods.

The term "socialist economics" may also be applied to the analysis of former and existing economic systems that were implemented in socialist states, such as in the works of Hungarian economist János Kornai.

Socialist economics has been associated with different schools of economic thought. Marxian economics provided a foundation for socialism based on analysis of capitalism, while neoclassical economics and evolutionary economics provided comprehensive models of socialism.
During the 20th century, proposals and models for both planned economies and market socialism were based heavily on neoclassical economics or a synthesis of neoclassical economics with Marxian or institutional economics.

Contents
1 History of socialist economic thought
1.1 Utopian socialism
1.2 Socialism and classical political economy
1.3 Socialist political economy before Marx
1.4 Karl Marx and Das Kapital
1.5 Anarchist economics
1.6 After Marx
2 Characteristics
2.1 Economic planning
2.2 Anti-capitalism
2.3 Economic value theories
3 Economic models and systems
3.1 Economic democracy
3.2 Lange–Lerner model
3.3 Self-managed economy
3.4 Worker self-directed enterprise
3.5 Democratic planned socialism
3.6 Feasible socialism
3.7 Pragmatic market socialism
3.8 Participatory economy
3.9 Computer-managed allocation
3.10 Peer-to-peer economy and open source
3.11 Negotiated coordination
4 Elements of socialism in practice
4.1 Centrally planned economies
4.1.1 Soviet Union
4.1.1.1 Dispute that the Soviet model is socialism
4.1.2 World socialist economic system
4.1.3 Achievements of the socialist planned economies
4.1.4 Economic problems of the socialist planned economies
4.2 Transition to market economies
4.2.1 Transition economies
4.2.2 People's Republic of China
4.2.3 Vietnam
4.2.4 Cuba
4.3 Social democratic mixed economies
4.4 State capitalism
4.4.1 Singapore
4.4.2 India
4.5 Paris Commune
4.6 Social ownership and peer-to-peer production
4.6.1 Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
4.6.2 Self-managed enterprises
4.7 Anarchist Spain
5 Criticisms

For more information, see Socialist economics .
Social corporatism From Wikipedia:
Social corporatism (also called social democratic corporatism) is a form of economic tripartite corporatism based upon a social partnership between the interests of capital and labour, involving collective bargaining between representatives of employers and of labour mediated by the government at the national level.
Social corporatism is a major component of the Nordic model of capitalism and to a lesser degree the West European social market economies.
It is considered a compromise to regulate the conflict between capital and labour by mandating them to engage in mutual consultations that are mediated by the government.

Generally supported by nationalist and/or social-democratic political parties, social corporatism developed in the post-World War II period, influenced by social democrats and Christian democrats in European countries such as Austria, Norway, the Netherlands, Germany and Sweden.
Social corporatism has also been adopted in different configurations and to varying degrees in various European countries.

The Nordic countries have the most comprehensive form of collective bargaining, where trade unions are represented at the national level by official organizations alongside employers unions.
Together with the welfare state policies of these countries, this forms what is termed the Nordic model.
Less extensive models exist in Germany and Austria, which are components of Rhine capitalism.

Contents
1 Positions
1.1 Position on class conflict: class compromise
2 History
2.1 1930s–1970s: Norway, Sweden and Austria

For more information, see Social corporatism .
Social market economy From Wikipedia:
The social market economy (SOME; German: soziale Marktwirtschaft), also called Rhine capitalism, is a socioeconomic model combining a free market capitalist economic system alongside social policies that establish both fair competition within the market and a welfare state.
It is sometimes classified as a coordinated market economy.
The social market economy was originally promoted and implemented in West Germany by the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer in 1949.
Its origins can be traced to the interwar Freiburg school of economic thought.

The social market economy was designed to be a third way between laissez-faire economic liberalism and socialist economics.
It was strongly inspired by ordoliberalism, social democratic reformism and the political ideology of Christian democracy, or more generally the tradition of Christian ethics.
The social market economy refrains from attempts to plan and guide production, the workforce, or sales, but it does support planned efforts to influence the economy through the organic means of a comprehensive economic policy coupled with flexible adaptation to market studies.
Combining monetary, credit, trade, tax, customs, investment and social policies as well as other measures, this type of economic policy aims to create an economy that serves the welfare and needs of the entire population, thereby fulfilling its ultimate goal.

The "social" segment is often wrongly confused with socialism and democratic socialism and although aspects were inspired by the latter the social market approach rejects the socialist ideas of replacing private property and markets with social ownership and economic planning.
The "social" element to the model instead refers to support for the provision of equal opportunity and protection of those unable to enter the free market labor force because of old-age, disability, or unemployment.

Some authors use the term "social capitalism" with roughly the same meaning as social market economy.
It is also called "Rhine capitalism", typically when contrasting it with the Anglo-Saxon model of capitalism.
Rather than see it as an antithesis, some authors describe Rhine capitalism as a successful synthesis of the Anglo-American model with social democracy.
The German model is also contrasted and compared with other economic models, some of which are also described as "third ways" or regional forms of capitalism, including Tony Blair's Third Way, French dirigisme, the Dutch polder model, the Nordic model, Japanese corporate capitalism and the contemporary Chinese model.
A 2012 comparative politics textbook distinguishes between the "conservative-corporatist welfare state" (arising from the German social market economy) and the "labor-led social democratic welfare state".
The concept of the model has since been expanded upon into the idea of an eco-social market economy as not only taking into account the social responsibility of humanity, but also the sustainable use and protection of natural resources.

Contents
1 Model
1.1 Rhine capitalism
1.2 Social capitalism model
1.3 Main elements
2 History
2.1 United Kingdom
3 Criticism

For more information, see Social market economy .
State capitalism From Wikipedia:
State capitalism is an economic system in which the state undertakes commercial (i.e. for-profit) economic activity and where the means of production are organized and managed as state-owned business enterprises (including the processes of capital accumulation, wage labor and centralized management), or where there is otherwise a dominance of corporatized government agencies (agencies organized along business-management practices) or of publicly listed corporations in which the state has controlling shares.
Marxist literature defines state capitalism as a social system combining capitalism with ownership or control by a state—by this definition, a state capitalist country is one where the government controls the economy and essentially acts like a single huge corporation, extracting the surplus value from the workforce in order to invest it in further production.
This designation applies regardless of the political aims of the state (even if the state is nominally socialist), and some people argue that the modern People's Republic of China constitutes a form of state capitalism.

The term "state capitalism" is also used by some in reference to a private capitalist economy controlled by a state, often meaning a privately owned economy that is subject to statist economic planning.
This term was often used to describe the controlled economies of the Great Powers in the First World War.
State capitalism has also come to refer to an economic system where the means of production are owned privately, but the state has considerable control over the allocation of credit and investment as in the case of France during the period of dirigisme after the Second World War.
State capitalism may be used (sometimes interchangeably with state monopoly capitalism) to describe a system where the state intervenes in the economy to protect and advance the interests of large-scale businesses; Noam Chomsky, a libertarian socialist, applies the term 'state capitalism' to economies such as that of the United States, where large enterprises that are deemed "too big to fail" receive publicly funded government bailouts that mitigate the firms' assumption of risk and undermine market laws, and where private production is largely funded by the state at public expense, but private owners reap the profits.
This practice is in contrast with the ideals of both socialism and laissez-faire capitalism.

There are various theories and critiques of state capitalism, some of which existed before the 1917 October Revolution.
The common themes among them identify that the workers do not meaningfully control the means of production and detect that commodity relations and production for profit still occur within state capitalism.
In Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (1880), Friedrich Engels argued that state ownership does not do away with capitalism by itself, but rather would be the final stage of capitalism, consisting of ownership and management of large-scale production and communication by the bourgeois state.
He argued that the tools for ending capitalism are found in state capitalism.

Contents
1 Origins and early uses of the term
2 Use of the term by the left
2.1 Socialists
2.2 Anarchists
2.3 Russian communist left
2.4 Mensheviks and orthodox Marxists
2.5 Shachtmanite Trotskyists
2.6 Use by later left communists and council communists
2.7 Use by Maoists and anti-revisionists
3 Use by liberal economists
4 Use by Italian Fascists
5 In Western countries
6 In European studies
7 State monopoly capitalism
7.1 Political implications
7.2 Neo-Trotskyist theory
7.3 Criticism
7.4 In popular culture
8 Current forms in the 21st century
8.1 Mainland China
8.2 Taiwan
8.3 Norway
8.4 Singapore

For more information, see State capitalism .
State ownership From Wikipedia:
State ownership (also called public ownership and government ownership) is the ownership of an industry, asset, or enterprise by the state or a public body representing a community as opposed to an individual or private party.
Public ownership specifically refers to industries selling goods and services to consumers and differs from public goods and government services financed out of a government’s general budget.
Public ownership can take place at the national, regional, local, or municipal levels of government; or can refer to non-governmental public ownership vested in autonomous public enterprises.
Public ownership is one of the three major forms of property ownership, differentiated from private, collective/cooperative, and common ownership.

In market-based economies, state-owned assets are often managed and operated as joint-stock corporations with a government owning all or a controlling stake of the company's shares.
This form is often referred to as a state-owned enterprise.
A state-owned enterprise might variously operate as a not-for-profit corporation, as it may not be required to generate a profit; as a commercial enterprise in competitive sectors; or as a natural monopoly.
Governments may also use the profitable entities they own to support the general budget.
The creation of a state-owned enterprise from other forms of public property is called corporatization.

In Soviet-type economies, state property was the dominant form of industry as property.
The state held a monopoly on land and natural resources, and enterprises operated under the legal framework of a nominally planned economy, and thus according to different criteria than enterprises in market and mixed economies.

Nationalization is a process of transferring private or municipal assets to a central government or state entity.
Municipalization is the process of transferring private or state assets to a municipal government.

Contents
1 State-owned enterprise
2 Relation to socialism
3 User rights
4 Public property
5 Criticism

For more information, see State ownership .
State socialism From Wikipedia:
State socialism is a classification for any socialist political and economic perspective advocating state ownership of the means of production either as a temporary measure in the transition from capitalism to socialism, or as characteristic of socialism itself.
It is often used interchangeably with state capitalism in reference to the economic systems of Marxist–Leninist states such as the Soviet Union to highlight the role of state planning in these economies, with the critics of said system referring to it more commonly as "state capitalism".
Libertarian and democratic socialists claim that these states had only a limited number of socialist characteristics.
However, Marxist–Leninists maintain that workers in the Soviet Union and other Marxist–Leninist states had genuine control over the means of production through institutions such as trade unions.

State socialism is held in contrast with libertarian socialism, which rejects the view that socialism can be constructed by using existing state institutions or by governmental policies.
By contrast, proponents of state socialism claim that the state—through practical considerations of governing—must play at least a temporary part in building socialism.
It is possible to conceive of a democratic state that owns the means of production, but it is internally organized in a participatory, cooperative fashion, thereby achieving both social ownership of productive property and workplace democracy in day-to-day operations.

Contents
1 History
2 Description and theory
2.1 Role of the state in socialism
3 Political perspectives
4 State socialism in Communist states
5 Bismarck's social policy
6 Criticism

For more information, see State socialism .
Virtual economy From Wikipedia:
A virtual economy (or sometimes synthetic economy) is an emergent economy existing in a virtual world, usually exchanging virtual goods in the context of an Internet game.
People enter these virtual economies for recreation and entertainment rather than necessity, which means that virtual economies lack the aspects of a real economy that are not considered to be "fun" (for instance, avatars in a virtual economy often do not need to buy food in order to survive, and usually do not have any biological needs at all).
However, some people do interact with virtual economies for "real" economic benefit.

Despite primarily dealing with in-game currencies, this term also encompasses the selling of virtual currency for real money.

Contents
1 Overview
1.1 Marketplace
2 Recent developments
2.1 More controlled markets
2.1.1 One-way currency
2.1.2 Price comparison
2.1.3 Taxation
2.1.4 Gambling regulation
2.2 Virtual crime
2.2.1 Black market
2.3 Stability
3 Capital
4 Other virtual economies
4.1 Moderation on social news and networking sites
5 Controversy

For more information, see Virtual economy .
Welfare capitalism From Wikipedia:
Welfare capitalism is capitalism that includes social welfare policies.
Welfare capitalism is also the practice of businesses providing welfare services to their employees.
Welfare capitalism in this second sense, or industrial paternalism, was centered on industries that employed skilled labor and peaked in the mid-20th century.

Today, welfare capitalism is most often associated with the models of capitalism found in Central Mainland and Northern Europe, such as the Nordic model, social market economy and Rhine capitalism.
In some cases welfare capitalism exists within a mixed economy, but welfare states can and do exist independently of policies common to mixed economies such as state interventionism and extensive regulation.

Contents
1 Language
2 History
2.1 Cooperatives and model villages
2.2 Welfare as a business model
3 Modern welfare capitalism
3.1 In Europe
3.2 In the United States
4 Anti-unionism
5 Efficacy

For more information, see Welfare capitalism .
World economy From Wikipedia:
The world economy or global economy is the economy of the humans of the world, considered as the international exchange of goods and services that is expressed in monetary units of account.
In some contexts, the two terms are distinct "international" or "global economy" being measured separately and distinguished from national economies while the "world economy" is simply an aggregate of the separate countries' measurements.
Beyond the minimum standard concerning value in production, use and exchange the definitions, representations, models and valuations of the world economy vary widely. It is inseparable from the geography and ecology of Earth.

It is common to limit questions of the world economy exclusively to human economic activity and the world economy is typically judged in monetary terms, even in cases in which there is no efficient market to help valuate certain goods or services, or in cases in which a lack of independent research or government cooperation makes establishing figures difficult.
Typical examples are illegal drugs and other black market goods, which by any standard are a part of the world economy, but for which there is by definition no legal market of any kind.

However, even in cases in which there is a clear and efficient market to establish a monetary value, economists do not typically use the current or official exchange rate to translate the monetary units of this market into a single unit for the world economy since exchange rates typically do not closely reflect worldwide value, for example in cases where the volume or price of transactions is closely regulated by the government.

Rather, market valuations in a local currency are typically translated to a single monetary unit using the idea of purchasing power.
This is the method used below, which is used for estimating worldwide economic activity in terms of real United States dollars or euros.
However, the world economy can be evaluated and expressed in many more ways.
It is unclear, for example, how many of the world's 7.62 billion people have most of their economic activity reflected in these valuations.

According to Maddison, until the middle of 19th century, global output was dominated by China and India.
Waves of Industrial Revolution in Western Europe and Northern America shifted the shares to the Western Hemisphere.
As of 2017, the following 15 countries or regions have reached an economy of at least US$2 trillion by GDP in nominal or PPP terms: Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Russia, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States and the European Union.

Contents
1 Overview
1.1 World economy by country groups
1.2 Current world economic league table of largest economies in the world by GDP and share of global economic growth
1.3 Twenty largest economies in the world by nominal GDP
1.4 Twenty largest economies in the world by GDP (PPP)
2 Statistical indicators
2.1 Economy
2.2 Employment
2.3 Industries
2.4 Energy
2.5 Cross-border
2.6 Gift economy
2.7 Communications
2.8 Transport
2.9 Military
3 Economic studies

For more information, see World economy .
List of countries by economic freedom From Wikipedia:
This article includes a partial List of countries by economic freedom that shows the top 50 highest ranking countries from two reports on economic freedom.

- The Economic Freedom of the World Index is a report published by the Fraser Institute in conjunction with the Economic Freedom Network, a Canadian group of independent research and educational institutes in 90 nations and territories worldwide.

- The Index of Economic Freedom is an annual report published by American based the Heritage Foundation and The Wall Street Journal.
Countries are assessed as free, mostly free, moderately free, mostly unfree, and repressed.

For more information, see List of countries by economic freedom .
List of countries by economic complexity From Wikipedia:
This list orders countries by their economic complexity index (ECI), as it was defined and calculated by Cesar A. Hidalgo and Ricardo Hausmann.
The ECI was calculated with trade data from the UN Comtrade, thus the information is only based on exports (and not goods produced).
The 2009 rankings includes Products Exports Treemaps, also built by the Observatory of Economic Complexity.

Contents
1 2016 rankings
2 2014 rankings
3 2013 rankings
4 2009 rankings
5 Factors affecting differences between countries

For more information, see List of countries by economic complexity .
List of countries by real GDP growth rate From Wikipedia:
This article includes a list of countries and dependent territories sorted by their real gross domestic product growth rate; the rate of growth of the value of all final goods and services produced within a state in a given year.
The statistics were compiled from the IMF World Economic Outlook Database with the vast majority of estimates corresponding to the 2018 calendar year.
Values from other sources are referenced as such.

Contents
1 List (2018)
2 List by the World Bank

For more information, see List of countries by real GDP growth rate .
List of countries by GDP (nominal) From Wikipedia:
Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all final goods and services from a nation in a given year.
Countries are sorted by nominal GDP estimates from financial and statistical institutions, which are calculated at market or government official exchange rates.
Nominal GDP does not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries, and the results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country's currency.
Such fluctuations may change a country's ranking from one year to the next, even though they often make little or no difference in the standard of living of its population.

Comparisons of national wealth are also frequently made on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP), to adjust for differences in the cost of living in different countries.
PPP largely removes the exchange rate problem, but has its own drawbacks; it does not reflect the value of economic output in international trade, does not take into account the differences of quality of goods and services among countries, and it also requires more estimation than nominal GDP.
On the whole, PPP per capita figures are less spread than nominal GDP per capita figures.

The United States is the world's largest economy with a GDP of approximately $20.513 trillion, notably due to high average incomes, a large population, capital investment, moderate unemployment, high consumer spending, a relatively young population, and technological innovation.
Tuvalu is the world's smallest national economy, with a GDP of about $32 million, because of its very small population, a lack of natural resources, reliance on foreign aid, negligible capital investment, demographic problems, and low average incomes.

Although the rankings of national economies have changed considerably over time, the United States has maintained its top position since the Gilded Age, a time period in which its economy saw rapid expansion, surpassing the British Empire and Qing dynasty in aggregate output.
Since China's transition to a market-based economy through privatisation and deregulation, the country has seen its ranking increase from ninth in 1978 to second to only the United States in 2016 as economic growth accelerated and its share of global nominal GDP surged from 2% in 1980 to 15% in 2016.
India has also experienced a similar economic boom since the implementation of economic liberalisation in the early 1990s.
When supranational entities are included, the European Union is the second largest economy in the world.
It was the largest from 2004, when ten countries joined the union, to 2014, after which it was surpassed by the United States.

The first list includes estimates compiled by the International Monetary Fund's World Economic Outlook, the second list shows the World Bank's data, and the third list includes data compiled by the United Nations Statistics Division.
The IMF definitive data for the past year and estimates for the current year are published twice a year in April and October.
Non-sovereign entities (the world, continents, and some dependent territories) and states with limited international recognition (such as Kosovo, the State of Palestine and Taiwan) are included in the list in cases in which they appear in the sources.
These economies are not ranked in the charts here, but are listed in sequence by GDP for comparison.
In addition, non-sovereign entities are marked in italics.

Contents
1 Lists

For more information, see List of countries by GDP (nominal) .

For more information, see
Economic system ,
Economy .

In this section the production of primary food sources is examined.
The production of processed/manufactured food items is examined in a later section.
From Wikipedia:
Food Food production
The food industry is a complex, global collective of diverse businesses that supplies most of the food consumed by the world's population.
Only subsistence farmers, those who survive on what they grow, and hunter-gatherers can be considered outside the scope of the modern food industry.

The food Industry includes:

- Agriculture: raising crops, livestock, and seafood
- Manufacturing: agrichemicals, agricultural construction, farm machinery and supplies, seed, etc.
- Food processing: preparation of fresh products for market, and manufacture of prepared food products
- Marketing: promotion of generic products (e.g., milk board), new products, advertising, marketing campaigns, packaging, public relations, etc.
- Wholesale and food distribution: logistics, transportation, warehousing
- Foodservice (which includes catering)
- Grocery, farmers' markets, public markets and other retailing
- Regulation: local, regional, national, and international rules and regulations for food production and sale, including food quality, food - security, food safety, marketing/advertising, and industry lobbying activities
- Education: academic, consultancy, vocational
- Research and development: food technology
- Financial services: credit, insurance

Contents
1 Definitions
2 Agriculture and agronomy
3 Food processing
4 Industry influence
5 Regulation
6 Wholesale and distribution
7 Retail
8 Food industry technologies
9 Marketing
10 Labor and education
11 By country

For more information, see
Food production .

Agriculture From Wikipedia:
Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock.
Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities.
The history of agriculture began thousands of years ago.
After gathering wild grains beginning at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers began to plant them around 11,500 years ago.
Pigs, sheep and cattle were domesticated over 10,000 years ago.
Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world.
Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to dominate agricultural output, though about 2 billion people still depended on subsistence agriculture into the twenty-first.

Modern agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, and technological developments have sharply increased yields, while causing widespread ecological and environmental damage.
Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal welfare and environmental damage.
Environmental issues include contributions to global warming, depletion of aquifers, deforestation, antibiotic resistance, and growth hormones in industrial meat production.
Genetically modified organisms are widely used, although some are banned in certain countries.

The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels and raw materials (such as rubber).
Food classes include cereals (grains), vegetables, fruits, oils, meat, milk, fungi and eggs.
Over one-third of the world's workers are employed in agriculture, second only to the service sector, although the number of agricultural workers in developed countries has decreased significantly over the centuries.

Contents
1 Etymology and scope
2 History
2.1 Origins
2.2 Civilizations
2.3 Revolution
3 Types
4 Contemporary agriculture
4.1 Status
4.2 Workforce
4.3 Safety
5 Production
5.1 Crop cultivation systems
5.2 Livestock production systems
5.3 Production practices
6 Crop alteration and biotechnology
6.1 Plant breeding
6.2 Genetic engineering
7 Environmental impact
7.1 Effects and costs
7.2 Livestock issues
7.3 Land and water issues
7.4 Pesticides
7.5 Global warming
7.6 Sustainability
7.7 Energy dependence
8 Disciplines
8.1 Agricultural economics
8.2 Agricultural science
9 Policy

For more information, see Agriculture .
Crop From Wikipedia:
A crop is a plant or animal product that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence.
Crop may refer either to the harvested parts or to the harvest in a more refined state.
Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or aquaculture.
A crop is usually expanded to include macroscopic fungus (e.g. mushrooms), or alga (algaculture).

Most crops are harvested as food for humans or fodder for livestock.
Some crops are gathered from the wild (including intensive gathering, e.g. ginseng).

Important non-food crops include horticulture, floriculture and industrial crops.
Horticulture crops include plants used for other crops (e.g. fruit trees).
Floriculture crops include bedding plants, houseplants, flowering garden and pot plants, cut cultivated greens, and cut flowers.
Industrial crops are produced for clothing (fiber crops), biofuel (energy crops, algae fuel), or medicine (medicinal plants).

Contents
1 Important food crops

For more information, see Crop .
List of most valuable crops and livestock products From Wikipedia:
The following list, derived from the statistics of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) unless otherwise noted, lists the most important agricultural products produced by the countries of the world.

The data in this article, unless otherwise noted, is for 2012.
The value and production of individual crops varies substantially from year to year as prices fluctuate on the world and country markets and weather and other factors influence production.

For more information, see List of most valuable crops and livestock products .
List of domesticated plants From Wikipedia:
This is a list of plants that have been domesticated by humans.

The list includes species or larger formal and informal botanical categories that include at least some domesticated individuals.

To be considered domesticated, a population of plants must have their behavior, life cycle, or appearance significantly altered as a result of being under humans control for multiple generations.
(Please see the main article on domestication for more information.)

Plants in this list are organized by the original or primary purpose for which they were domesticated.
When a plant has more than one significant human use, it has been listed in more than one category.

Contents
1 Food and cooking
1.1 Fruit trees
1.1.1 Pomes
1.1.2 Citrus fruits
1.1.3 Nut trees
1.1.4 Other
1.2 Cereals
1.2.1 Pseudocereals
1.3 Legumes
1.4 Sweet small-plant fruits
1.4.1 Aggregated drupelet "berries"
1.4.2 True berries
1.4.3 Other
1.5 Vegetables
1.5.1 Non-sweet small-plant fruits
1.5.2 Root vegetables
1.6 Herbs and spices
1.7 Oil producing plants
2 Commodities
3 Ornamental plants

For more information, see List of domesticated plants .
List of culinary fruits From Wikipedia:
This list contains the names of fruits that are considered edible either raw or in some cuisines.
The word "fruit" is used in several different ways.
The definition of fruit for this list is a culinary fruit, i.e. "Any sweet, edible part of a plant that resembles fruit, even if it does not develop from a floral ovary; also used in a technically imprecise sense for some sweet or semi-sweet vegetables, some of which may resemble a true fruit or are used in cookery as if they were a fruit, for example rhubarb."
Many edible plant parts that are true fruits botanically speaking, are not considered culinary fruits.
They are classified as vegetables in the culinary sense (for example: the tomato, zucchini, and so on), and hence they do not appear in this list.
Similarly, some botanical fruits are classified as nuts (e.g. brazil nut), and do not appear here either.
Because of all this, this list is also not meant to be botanically correct with how the fruits are grouped together, instead, fruits are grouped together based on physical similarities (e.g. bananas are botanically a berry, but wouldn't commonly be called such, so they are not grouped with the other berries on this list).

Contents
1 Pomes
2 Drupes
3 Citruses
4 Berries
5 Melons
6 Tropical and tropical-like fruit
7 Cacti and other succulent fruit
8 Plants with edible fruit-like structures

For more information, see List of culinary fruits .
Cereal From Wikipedia:
A cereal is any grass cultivated (grown) for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran.
The term may also refer to the resulting grain itself (specifically "cereal grain").
Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops.
Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat (Polygonaceae), quinoa (Amaranthaceae) and chia (Lamiaceae), are referred to as pseudocereals.

In their natural, unprocessed, whole grain form, cereals are a rich source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils, and protein.
When processed by the removal of the bran, and germ, the remaining endosperm is mostly carbohydrate.
In some developing countries, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, or maize constitutes a majority of daily sustenance.
In developed countries, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial.

The word cereal is derived from Ceres, the Roman goddess of harvest and agriculture.

Contents
1 Ancient history
2 The Green Revolution
3 Farming
3.1 Planting
3.2 Harvesting
4 Production
5 Nutritional facts
6 Standardization

For more information, see Cereal .
Legume From Wikipedia:
A legume (/ˈlɛɡjuːm, ləˈɡjuːm/) is a plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seed of such a plant (also called a pulse, especially in the mature, dry condition).
Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, for livestock forage and silage, and as soil-enhancing green manure.
Well-known legumes include alfalfa, clover, beans, peas, chickpeas, lentils, lupins, mesquite, carob, soybeans, peanuts, and tamarind.
Legumes produce a botanically unique type of fruit – a simple dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel and usually dehisces (opens along a seam) on two sides.
A common name for this type of fruit is a pod, although the term "pod" is also applied to a number of other fruit types, such as that of vanilla (a capsule) and of the radish (a silique).

Legumes are notable in that most of them have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in structures called root nodules.
For that reason, they play a key role in crop rotation.

Contents
1 Terminology
2 Uses
3 Human consumption
3.1 Nutritional value
3.2 Classification of pulses
4 Forage
5 Other uses
6 Nitrogen fixation
7 Farming system
8 History
9 Distribution and production
9.1 Storage of grain legumes
10 Pests of legumes
11 Common diseases of legumes
12 Principles applied to control diseases in plants
13 Pollination of legumes
14 International Year of Pulses

For more information, see Legume .
List of vegetables From Wikipedia:
This is a list of plants that have a culinary role as vegetables.
"Vegetable" can be used in several senses, including culinary, botanical and legal.
This list includes botanical fruits such as pumpkins, and does not include herbs, spices, cereals and most culinary fruits and culinary nuts.
Edible fungi are not included in this list.

Legal vegetables are defined for regulatory, tax and other purposes.
An example would include the tomato, which is a botanical berry, but a culinary vegetable according to the United States.

Contents
1 Leafy and salad vegetables
2 Fruits
3 Edible flowers
4 Podded vegetables
5 Bulb and stem vegetables
6 Root and tuberous vegetables
7 Sea vegetables

For more information, see List of vegetables .
List of root vegetables From Wikipedia:
Root vegetables are underground plant parts eaten by humans as food.
Although botany distinguishes true roots (such as taproots and tuberous roots) from non-roots (such as bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and tubers, although some contain both hypocotyl and taproot tissue), the term "root vegetable" is applied to all these types in agricultural and culinary usage.

Root vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of carbohydrates.
They differ in the concentration and the balance among starches, sugars, and other types of carbohydrate.
Of particular economic importance are those with a high carbohydrate concentration in the form of starch; starchy root vegetables are important staple foods, particularly in tropical regions, overshadowing cereals throughout much of Central Africa, West Africa and Oceania, where they are used directly or mashed to make fufu or poi.

Many root vegetables keep well in root cellars, lasting several months.
This is one way of storing food for use long after harvest, which is especially important in nontropical latitudes, where winter is traditionally a time of little to no harvesting.
There are also season extension methods that can extend the harvest throughout the winter, mostly through the use of polytunnels.

Adherents of Jainism do not eat root vegetables.

Contents
1 List of root vegetables
1.1 Modified plant stem
1.2 Root-like stem
1.3 True root

For more information, see List of root vegetables .
List of culinary herbs and spices From Wikipedia:
This is a list of culinary herbs and spices.
Specifically these are food or drink additives of mostly botanical origin used in nutritionally insignificant quantities for flavoring or coloring.

This list does not contain fictional plants such as aglaophotis, or recreational drugs such as tobacco.

This list is not for plants used primarily for herbal teas, nor for purely medicinal plant products, such as valerian.

For more information, see List of culinary herbs and spices .
List of vegetable oils From Wikipedia:
Vegetable oils are triglycerides extracted from plants.
Some of these oils have been part of human culture for millennia.
Edible vegetable oils are used in food, both in cooking and as supplements.
Many oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels.
Some of the many other uses include wood finishing, oil painting, and skin care.

Contents
1 Definition
2 Classification
2.1 Extraction method
2.2 Sources
2.3 Use
3 Edible oils
3.1 Major oils
3.2 Nut oils
3.3 Citrus oils
3.4 Oils from melon and gourd seeds
3.5 Food supplements
3.6 Other edible oils
4 Oils used for biofuel
4.1 Multipurpose oils also used as biofuel
4.2 Inedible oils used only or primarily as biofuel
5 Drying oils
6 Other oils

For more information, see List of vegetable oils .
Livestock From Wikipedia:
Livestock is commonly defined as domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce labor and commodities such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool.
The term is sometimes used to refer solely to those that are bred for consumption, while other times it refers only to farmed ruminants, such as cattle and goats.
Horses are considered livestock in the United States.
The USDA classifies pork, veal, beef, and lamb as livestock and all livestock as red meat.
Poultry and fish are not included in the category.

The breeding, maintenance, and slaughter of livestock, known as animal husbandry, is a component of modern agriculture that has been practiced in many cultures since humanity's transition to farming from hunter-gatherer lifestyles.
Animal husbandry practices have varied widely across cultures and time periods, and continues to play a major economic and cultural role in numerous communities.

Livestock farming practices have largely shifted to intensive animal farming, sometimes referred to as "factory farming"; over 99% of livestock in the US are now raised in this way.
Intensive animal farming increases the yield of the various commercial outputs, but has also led to negative impacts on animal welfare, the environment, and public health.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Types
4 Farming practices
5 Predation
6 Disease
7 Transportation and marketing
8 Environmental impact
9 Economic and social benefits

For more information, see Livestock .
List of domesticated animals From Wikipedia:
This page gives a list of domestic animals,[1] also including a list of animals which are or may be currently undergoing the process of domestication and animals that have an extensive relationship with humans beyond simple predation.
This includes species which are semi-domesticated, undomesticated but captive-bred on a commercial scale, or commonly wild-caught, at least occasionally captive-bred, and tameable.
In order to be considered fully domesticated, most species have undergone significant genetic, behavioural and/or morphological changes from their wild ancestors; while others have been changed very little from their wild ancestors despite hundreds or thousands of years of potential selective breeding.
A number of factors determine how quickly any changes may occur in a species, however, there isn't always a desire to improve a species from its wild form.
Domestication is a gradual process, i.e., there is no precise moment in the history of a given species when it can be considered to have become fully domesticated.

Archaeozoology has identified three classes of animal domesticates:

1. commensals, adapted to a human niche (e.g., dogs, cats, guinea pigs)
2. prey animals sought for food (e.g., cows, sheep, pig, goats)
3. targeted animals for draft and nonfood resources (e.g., horse, camel, donkey).

To sort the tables chronologically by date of domestication, refresh your browser window, as clicking the Date column heading will mix CE and BCE dates.

Contents
1 Domestic animals
2 Semidomesticated, routinely captive-bred, or domestication status unclear
3 Taxonomical groupings

For more information, see List of domesticated animals .
Animal husbandry From Wikipedia:
For more information, see Animal husbandry .

Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, eggs, or other products.
It includes day-to-day care, selective breeding and the raising of livestock.

Husbandry has a long history, starting with the Neolithic revolution when animals were first domesticated, from around 13,000 BC onwards, antedating farming of the first crops.
By the time of early civilisations such as ancient Egypt, cattle, sheep, goats and pigs were being raised on farms.

Major changes took place in the Columbian Exchange when Old World livestock were brought to the New World, and then in the British Agricultural Revolution of the 18th century, when livestock breeds like the Dishley Longhorn cattle and Lincoln Longwool sheep were rapidly improved by agriculturalists such as Robert Bakewell to yield more meat, milk, and wool.

A wide range of other species such as horse, water buffalo, llama, rabbit and guinea pig are used as livestock in some parts of the world.
Insect farming, as well as aquaculture of fish, molluscs, and crustaceans, is widespread.

Modern animal husbandry relies on production systems adapted to the type of land available.
Subsistence farming is being superseded by intensive animal farming in the more developed parts of the world, where for example beef cattle are kept in high density feedlots, and thousands of chickens may be raised in broiler houses or batteries.
On poorer soil such as in uplands, animals are often kept more extensively, and may be allowed to roam widely, foraging for themselves.

Most livestock are herbivores, except for pigs and chickens which are omnivores.
Ruminants like cattle and sheep are adapted to feed on grass; they can forage outdoors, or may be fed entirely or in part on rations richer in energy and protein, such as pelleted cereals.
Pigs and poultry cannot digest the cellulose in forage, and require cereals and other high-energy foods.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Birth of husbandry
2.2 Ancient civilisations
2.3 Medieval husbandry
2.4 Columbian Exchange
2.5 Agricultural Revolution
3 Husbandry
3.1 Systems
3.2 Feeding
3.3 Breeding
3.4 Animal health
3.5 Range of species
3.6 Products
4 Branches
4.1 Dairy
4.2 Meat
4.3 Poultry
4.4 Aquaculture
4.5 Insects
5 Effects
5.1 Environmental impact
5.2 Animal welfare
5.3 In culture

For more information, see Animal husbandry .
Intensive animal farming From Wikipedia:
Intensive animal farming or industrial livestock production, also known as factory farming, is a production approach towards farm animals in order to maximize production output, while minimizing production costs.
Intensive farming refers to animal husbandry, the keeping of livestock such as cattle, poultry, and fish at higher stocking densities than is usually the case with other forms of animal agriculture—a practice typical in industrial farming by agribusinesses.
The main products of this industry are meat, milk and eggs for human consumption.
There are issues regarding whether factory farming is sustainable or ethical.

Confinement at high stocking density is one part of a systematic effort to produce the highest output at the lowest cost by relying on economies of scale, modern machinery, biotechnology, and global trade.
There are differences in the way factory farming techniques are practiced around the world.
There is a continuing debate over the benefits, risks and ethical questions of factory farming.
The issues include the efficiency of food production; animal welfare; health risks and the environmental impact (e.g. agricultural pollution and climate change).

Contents
1 History
2 Contemporary animal production
2.1 Chickens
2.2 Pigs
2.3 Cattle
3 Aquaculture
3.1 Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture
3.2 Shrimp
4 Regulation
5 Controversies and criticisms
5.1 Human health impact
5.2 Environmental impact
5.3 Labor
5.4 Market concentration
5.5 Demonstrations
5.6 Fast Food

For more information, see Intensive animal farming .
Poultry farming From Wikipedia:
Poultry farming is the process of raising domesticated birds such as chickens, ducks, turkeys and geese for the purpose of farming meat or eggs for food.
Poultry – mostly chickens – are farmed in great numbers.
Farmers raise more than 50 billion chickens annually as a source of food, both for their meat and for the eggs.
Chickens raised for eggs are usually called[by whom?] layers while chickens raised for meat are often called broilers.

In the United States, the national organization overseeing poultry production is the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
In the UK, the national organisation is the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra).

Contents
1 Intensive and alternative
2 Egg-laying chickens
2.1 Free-range
2.1.1 Free-Run
2.1.2 Organic
2.2 Yarding
2.3 Battery cage
2.4 Furnished cage
3 Meat-producing chickens – husbandry systems
3.1 Indoor broilers
3.1.1 Issues with indoor husbandry
3.1.2 Indoor with higher welfare
3.2 Free-range broilers
3.3 Organic broilers
4 Issues
4.1 Humane treatment
4.2 Beak trimming
4.3 Antibiotics
4.3.1 Emerging threats: antibiotic resistance
4.3.2 Consumer health effects
4.3.3 History of US federal policy on antibiotic use in livestock
4.3.4 Current US federal regulators
4.3.5 Vertical integration
4.3.6 Regulatory surveys
4.3.7 Antibiotic resistant outbreaks from poultry meat
4.3.8 Limitations and challenges
4.3.9 Solutions
4.3.10 Impacts of change
4.4 Arsenic
4.5 Growth hormones
4.6 E. coli
4.7 Avian influenza
4.8 Efficiency
4.9 Economic factors
4.10 Waste management, manure
4.11 Mortality
5 Worker health and safety
5.1 Muscular disorders
5.2 Respiratory consequences
5.3 Excretory consequences
6 World chicken population

For more information, see Poultry farming .
Intensive pig farming From Wikipedia:
Intensive pig farming, also known as pig factory farming is a subset of pig farming and of Industrial animal agriculture, all of which are types of animal husbandry, in which livestock domestic pigs are raised up to slaughter weight.
These operations are known as AFO or CAFO in the U.S.
In this system of pig production, grower pigs are housed indoors in group-housing or straw-lined sheds, whilst pregnant sows are housed in gestation crates or pens and give birth in farrowing crates.

The use of gestation crates for pregnant sows has resulted in lower birth production costs; however, this practice has led to more significant animal cruelty.
Many of the world's largest producers of pigs (US, China, Mexico) use gestation crates but some nations and nine US states have banned and removed these crates.
The European Union has banned the use of gestation crates after the 4th week of pregnancy.

Contents
1 Description
2 Popularity
3 Environmental impacts
4 Regulation
4.1 EU
4.2 United States
5 Criticism
5.1 Dispute regarding farming methods
5.2 Sow breeding systems
5.3 Effects on traditional rural communities
5.4 Waste management and public health concerns
5.5 North Carolina
5.6 Denmark
5.7 New Zealand

For more information, see Intensive pig farming .
Cattle From Wikipedia:
For more information, see Cattle .

Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates.
They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos taurus.

Cattle are commonly raised as livestock for meat (beef or veal, see beef cattle), for milk (see dairy cattle), and for hides, which are used to make leather.
They are used as riding animals and draft animals (oxen or bullocks, which pull carts, plows and other implements).
Another product of cattle is dung, which can be used to create manure or fuel.
In some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning.
Cattle, mostly small breeds such as the Miniature Zebu, are also kept as pets.

Around 10,500 years ago, cattle were domesticated from as few as 80 progenitors in central Anatolia, the Levant and Western Iran.
According to an estimate from 2011, there are 1.4 billion cattle in the world.
In 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome.
Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft.

Contents
1 Taxonomy
2 Etymology
3 Terminology
3.1 Singular terminology issue
3.2 Other terminology
4 Characteristics
4.1 Anatomy
4.1.1 Digestive system
4.1.2 Gestation and size
4.1.3 Reproduction
4.2 Weight
5 Cognition
6 Temperament and emotions
7 Senses
7.1 Vision
7.2 Taste
7.3 Audition
7.4 Olfaction and gustation
7.5 Touch
7.6 Magnetoreception
8 Behavior
8.1 Reproductive behavior
8.2 Dominance and leadership
8.3 Grazing behavior
9 Genetics
10 Domestication and husbandry
10.1 Usage as money
10.2 Modern husbandry
10.3 Sleep
11 Economy
11.1 Cattle meat production
11.2 Dairy
11.3 Hides
12 Feral cattle
13 Environmental impact
14 Health
14.1 Effect of high stocking density
15 Animal cruelty concerns
15.1 Beef cattle
15.2 Dairy cows
15.3 Leather
15.4 Rodeos
15.5 Running of the bulls
15.6 Bullfighting
16 Oxen
17 Religion, traditions and folklore
17.1 Islamic traditions
17.2 Hindu tradition
17.3 Other traditions
18 In heraldry
19 Population
20 Gallery

For more information, see Cattle .
Meat industry From Wikipedia:
The term meat industry describes modern industrialized livestock agriculture for production, packing, preservation and marketing of meat (in contrast to dairy products, wool, etc.).
In economics, it is a fusion of primary (agriculture) and secondary (industry) activity and hard to characterize strictly in terms of either one alone.
The greater part of the entire meat industry is termed meat packing industry- the segment that handles the slaughtering, processing, packaging, and distribution of animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock.

A great portion of the ever-growing meat branch in the food industry involves intensive animal farming in which livestock are kept almost entirely indoors or in restricted outdoor settings like pens.

Many aspects of the raising of animals for meat have become industrialized, even many practices more associated with smaller family farms, e.g. gourmet foods such as foie gras.

The production of livestock is a heavily vertically integrated industry where the majority of supply chain stages are integrated and owned by one company.

Contents
1 Efficiency considerations
2 Meat sources
3 Global production of meat products
3.1 Companies
3.2 World beef production
4 Criticism
4.1 Effects on livestock workers
5 Possible alternatives
5.1 Alternative meat industry

For more information, see Meat industry .
Dairy industry From Wikipedia:
A dairy is a business enterprise established for the harvesting or processing (or both) of animal milk – mostly from cows or goats, but also from buffaloes, sheep, horses, or camels – for human consumption.
A dairy is typically located on a dedicated dairy farm or in a section of a multi-purpose farm (mixed farm) that is concerned with the harvesting of milk.
...
Contents
1 History
2 Structure of the industry
3 Farming
4 Industrial processing
4.1 Cream and butter
4.2 Skimmed milk
4.3 Casein
4.4 Cheese
4.5 Whey
4.6 Yogurt
4.7 Milk powders
4.8 Other milk products
5 Milking
5.1 Milking machines
5.2 Milking shed layouts
5.2.1 Bail-style sheds
5.2.2 Herringbone milking parlours
5.2.3 Swingover milking parlours
5.2.4 Rotary milking sheds
5.2.5 Automatic milking sheds
5.2.6 Supplementary accessories in sheds
5.3 Temporary milk storage
6 Waste disposal
7 Associated diseases
8 Animal welfare
8.1 Bovine growth hormone

For more information, see Dairy industry .
Seafood From Wikipedia:
Seafood is any form of sea life regarded as food by humans, prominently including fish and shellfish.
Shellfish include various species of molluscs (e.g. bivalve molluscs such as clams, oysters, and mussels and cephalopods such as octopus and squid), crustaceans (e.g. shrimp, crabs, and lobster), and echinoderms (e.g. sea urchins).
Historically, marine mammals such as cetaceans (whales and dolphins) as well as seals have been eaten as food, though that happens to a lesser extent in modern times.
Edible sea plants such as some seaweeds and microalgae are widely eaten as sea vegetables around the world, especially in Asia.
In North America, although not generally in the United Kingdom, the term "seafood" is extended to fresh water organisms eaten by humans, so all edible aquatic life may be referred to as "seafood".
For the sake of completeness, this article is inclusive of all edible aquatic life.

The harvesting of wild seafood is usually known as fishing or hunting, while the cultivation and farming of seafood is known as aquaculture or fish farming (in the case of fish).
Seafood is often colloquially distinguished from meat, although it is still animal in nature and is excluded from a vegetarian diet, as decided by groups like the Vegetarian Society after confusion surrounding pescetarianism.
Seafood is an important source of (animal) protein in many diets around the world, especially in coastal areas.

Most of the seafood harvest is consumed by humans, but a significant proportion is used as fish food to farm other fish or rear farm animals.
Some seafoods (i.e. kelp) are used as food for other plants (a fertilizer).
In these ways, seafoods are used to produce further food for human consumption.
Also, products such as fish oil and spirulina tablets are extracted from seafoods.
Some seafood is fed to aquarium fish, or used to feed domestic pets such as cats.
A small proportion is used in medicine, or is used industrially for nonfood purposes (e.g. leather).

Contents
1 History
2 Types of seafood
3 Processing
4 Consumption
5 Texture and taste
6 Health benefits
7 Health hazards
8 Mislabelling
9 Sustainability
10 In religion

For more information, see Seafood .
Fishing From Wikipedia:
Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish.
Fish are normally caught in the wild.
Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping.
“Fishing” may include catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms.
The term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, such as whales where the term whaling is more appropriate.
In addition to being caught to be eaten, fish are caught as recreational pastimes.
Fishing tournaments are held, and caught fish are sometimes kept as preserved or living trophies.
When bioblitzes occur, fish are typically caught, identified, and then released.

According to the United Nations FAO statistics, the total number of commercial fishermen and fish farmers is estimated to be 38 million.
Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries.
In 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with an additional 7.4 kilograms harvested from fish farms.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Trawling
1.2 Recreational fishing
2 Techniques
3 Tackle
4 Fishing vessels
5 Traditional fishing
6 Recreational fishing
7 Fishing industry
7.1 Commercial fishing
7.2 Fish farms
7.3 Fish products
7.4 Fish marketing
8 Fisheries management
8.1 Sustainability
9 Animal welfare concerns
10 Cultural impact

For more information, see Fishing .
Fishing industry From Wikipedia:
The fishing industry includes any industry or activity concerned with taking, culturing, processing, preserving, storing, transporting, marketing or selling fish or fish products.
It is defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization as including recreational, subsistence and commercial fishing, and the harvesting, processing, and marketing sectors.
The commercial activity is aimed at the delivery of fish and other seafood products for human consumption or as input factors in other industrial processes.
Directly or indirectly, the livelihood of over 500 million people in developing countries depends on fisheries and aquaculture.

Contents
1 Sectors
2 Commercial sector
2.1 World production
2.2 Commercial fishing
2.3 Fish farming
2.4 Fish processing
2.5 Fish products
2.6 Fish marketing
3 Traditional sector
4 Recreational sector
5 International disputes
5.1 Disputes in the Americas
5.2 Disputes in Europe
5.3 Disputes in Asia

For more information, see Fishing industry .
Aquaculture From Wikipedia:
Aquaculture (less commonly spelled aquiculture[2]), also known as aquafarming, is the farming of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, algae, and other organisms.
Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish.
Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in underwater habitats.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), aquaculture "is understood to mean the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants.
Farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated."
The reported output from global aquaculture operations in 2014 supplied over one half of the fish and shellfish that is directly consumed by humans; however, there are issues about the reliability of the reported figures.
Further, in current aquaculture practice, products from several pounds of wild fish are used to produce one pound of a piscivorous fish like salmon.

Particular kinds of aquaculture include fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming, mariculture, algaculture (such as seaweed farming), and the cultivation of ornamental fish.
Particular methods include aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, both of which integrate fish farming and aquatic plant farming.

Contents
1 History
2 21st-century practice
3 Species groups
3.1 Aquatic plants
3.2 Fish
3.3 Crustaceans
3.4 Molluscs
3.5 Other groups
4 Around the world
4.1 National laws, regulations, and management
5 Over-reporting
6 Aquacultural methods
6.1 Mariculture
6.2 Integrated
7 Netting materials
8 Issues
8.1 Fish oils
8.2 Impacts on wild fish
8.3 Coastal ecosystems
8.4 Genetic modification
9 Ecological benefits
10 Animal welfare
10.1 Common welfare concerns
10.2 Improving welfare
11 Prospects

For more information, see Aquaculture .
Fish farming From Wikipedia:
Fish farming or pisciculture involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures such as fish ponds, usually for food.
It is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture.
A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery.
Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in fish farming are carp, tilapia, salmon, and catfish.

Demand is increasing for fish and fish protein, which has resulted in widespread overfishing in wild fisheries.
China provides 62% of the world's farmed fish.[2] As of 2016, more than 50% of seafood was produced by aquaculture.

Farming carnivorous fish, such as salmon, does not always reduce pressure on wild fisheries.
Carnivorous farmed fish are usually fed fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild forage fish.
The 2008 global returns for fish farming recorded by the FAO totaled 33.8 million tonnes worth about $US 60 billion.

Contents
1 Major species
2 Categories
2.1 Extensive aquaculture
2.2 Intensive aquaculture
3 Fish farms
3.1 Cage system
3.2 Irrigation ditch or pond systems
3.3 Integrated recycling systems
3.4 Classic fry farming
4 Issues
4.1 Labeling
5 Indoor fish farming
6 Slaughter methods
6.1 Inhumane methods
6.2 More humane methods
7 Gallery

For more information, see Fish farming .
List of types of seafood From Wikipedia:
The following is a list of types of seafood.
Seafood is any form of sea life regarded as food by humans.
It prominently includes fish, shellfish, and roe.
Shellfish include various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms.
Historically, sea mammals such as whales and dolphins have been consumed as food, though that happens to a lesser extent in modern times.
Edible sea plants, such as some seaweeds and microalgae, are widely eaten as seafood around the world, especially in Asia (see the category of sea vegetables).
In North America, although not generally in the United Kingdom, the term "seafood" is extended to fresh water organisms eaten by humans, so any edible aquatic life may be broadly referred to as seafood.

Contents
1 Fish
2 Roe
3 Shellfish
3.1 Crustaceans
3.2 Mollusca
4 Marine mammals
5 Echinoderms
6 Medusozoa
7 Tunicates (sea squirts)

For more information, see List of types of seafood .
Agribusiness From Wikipedia:
Agribusiness is the business of agricultural production.
The term is a portmanteau of agriculture and business and was coined in 1957 by John Davis and Ray Goldberg.
It includes agrichemicals, breeding, crop production (farming and contract farming), distribution, farm machinery, processing, and seed supply, as well as marketing and retail sales.
All agents of the food and fiber value chain and those institutions that influence it are part of the agribusiness system.

Within the agriculture industry, "agribusiness" refers to the range of activities and disciplines encompassed by modern food production.
There are academic degrees specializing in agribusiness, departments of agribusiness, agribusiness trade associations, and agribusiness publications.

In the context of agribusiness management in academia, each individual element of agriculture production and distribution may be described as agribusinesses.
However, the term "agribusiness" most often emphasizes the "interdependence" of these various sectors within the production chain.

Among critics of large-scale, industrialized, vertically integrated food production, the term agribusiness is used negatively, synonymous with corporate farming.
As such, it is often contrasted with smaller family-owned farms.

Contents
1 Examples
2 Studies and reports

For more information, see Agribusiness .
Intensive farming From Wikipedia:
For more information, see Intensive farming .

Intensive farming (as opposed to extensive farming) involves various types of agriculture with higher levels of input and output per cubic unit of agricultural land area.
It is characterized by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital and labour, and higher crop yields per cubic unit land area.
This contrasts with traditional agriculture, in which the inputs per unit land are lower.
The term "intensive" involves various meanings, some of which refer to organic farming methods (such as Biointensive agriculture and French intensive gardening), and others that refer to nonorganic and industrial methods.
Intensive animal farming involves either large numbers of animals raised on limited land, usually concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), often referred to as factory farms, or managed intensive rotational grazing (MIRG), which has both organic and non-organic types.
Both increase the yields of food and fiber per acre as compared to traditional animal husbandry.
In CAFO, feed is brought to the seldom-moved animals, while in MIRG the animals are repeatedly moved to fresh forage.

Most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways.
Forms that rely heavily on industrial methods are often called industrial agriculture, which is characterised by innovations designed to increase yield.
Techniques include planting multiple crops per year, reducing the frequency of fallow years, and improving cultivars.
It also involves increased use of fertilizers, plant growth regulators, and pesticides and mechanised agriculture, controlled by increased and more detailed analysis of growing conditions, including weather, soil, water, weeds, and pests.
This system is supported by ongoing innovation in agricultural machinery and farming methods, genetic technology, techniques for achieving economies of scale, logistics, and data collection and analysis technology.
Intensive farms are widespread in developed nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide.
Most of the meat, dairy, eggs, fruits, and vegetables available in supermarkets are produced by such farms.

Smaller intensive farms usually include higher inputs of labor and more often use sustainable intensive methods.
The farming practices commonly found on such farms are referred to as appropriate technology.
These farms are less widespread in both developed countries and worldwide, but are growing more rapidly.
Most of the food available in specialty markets such as farmers markets is produced by these small holder farms.

Contents
1 History
2 Techniques and technologies
2.1 Livestock
2.1.1 Confined animal feeding operations
2.1.2 Managed intensive rotational grazing
2.1.3 Pasture intensification
2.2 Crops
2.2.1 Seeds
2.2.2 Crop rotation
2.2.3 Irrigation
2.2.4 Weed control
2.2.5 Terracing
2.2.6 Rice paddies
2.3 Aquaculture
2.4 Sustainable intensive farming
3 Challenges
3.1 Population growth
3.2 Other impacts
3.2.1 Environmental
3.2.2 Social

For more information, see Intensive farming .
Extensive farming From Wikipedia:
Extensive farming or extensive agriculture (as opposed to intensive farming) is an agricultural production system that uses small inputs of labor, fertilizers, and capital, relative to the land area being farmed.

Extensive farming most commonly refers to sheep and cattle farming in areas with low agricultural productivity, but can also refer to large-scale growing of wheat, barley, cooking oils and other grain crops in areas like the Murray-Darling Basin in Australia.
Here, owing to the extreme age and poverty of the soils, yields per hectare are very low, but the flat terrain and very large farm sizes mean yields per unit of labour are high.
Nomadic herding is an extreme example of extensive farming, where herders move their animals to use feed from occasional sunlight.

Contents
1 Geography
2 Advantages
3 Disadvantages
4 Environmental impact

For more information, see Extensive farming .
Subsistence agriculture From Wikipedia:
Subsistence agriculture occurs when farmers grow food crops to feed themselves and their families.
In subsistence agriculture, farm output is targeted to survival and is mostly for local requirements with little or no surplus trade.
The typical subsistence farm has a range of crops and animals needed by the family to feed and clothe themselves during the year.
Planting decisions are made principally with an eye toward what the family will need during the coming year, and secondarily toward market prices.
Tony Waters writes: "Subsistence peasants are people who grow what they eat, build their own houses, and live without regularly making purchases in the marketplace."

Despite the primacy of self-sufficiency in subsistence farming, today most subsistence farmers also participate in trade to some degree, though usually it is for goods that are not necessary for survival, and may include sugar, iron roofing sheets, bicycles, used clothing, and so forth.
Most subsistence farmers today reside in developing countries, although their amount of trade as measured in cash is less than that of consumers in countries with modern complex markets, many have important trade contacts and trade items that they can produce because of their special skills or special access to resources valued in the marketplace.

Contents
1 History
2 Contemporary practices
3 Types of subsistence farming
3.1 Shifting agriculture
3.2 Primitive agriculture
3.3 Nomadic herding
3.4 Intensive subsistence farming
4 Poverty alleviation

For more information, see Subsistence agriculture .
Pastoralism From Wikipedia:
For more information, see Pastoralism .

Pastoralism is the branch of agriculture concerned with the raising of livestock.
It is animal husbandry: the care, tending and use of animals such as cattle, camels, goats, yaks, llamas, reindeer, horses and sheep.

"Pastoralism" often has a mobile aspect but this can take many forms and be at different scales.
Sedentary pastoralism is becoming more common as the hardening of political borders, expansion of crop agriculture, and building of fences reduces ability to move.
Mobile pastoralism includes moving herds distances in search of fresh pasture and water, something that can occur daily or even within a few hours, to transhumance, where animals are moved seasonally, to nomadism, where pastoralists and families move with the animals year-round.
In sedentary pastoralism, or pastoral farming, pastoralists grow crops and improve pastures for their livestock.
One example is a savanna area where pastoralists and their animals gather when rainwater is abundant and the pasture is rich, then scatter during the drying of the savanna.
Another is the movement of livestock from summer pastures in lowlands, to montane pastures in the summer where grass is green and plentiful during the dry season.
Grazing in woodlands and forests may be referred to as silvopastoralism.

Pastoralist herds interact with their environment, and mediate human relations with the environment as a way of turning uncultivated plants like wild grass into consumable, high quality, food.
In many places, grazing herds on savannas and woodlands can help maintain the biodiversity of the savannas and prevent them from evolving into dense shrublands or forests.
Grazing and browsing at the appropriate levels often can increase biodiversity in Mediterranean climate regions.
Pastoralists may also use fire to make ecosystems more suitable for grazing and browsing animals.
For instance, the Turkana people of northwest Kenya use fire to prevent the invasion of the savanna by woody plant species.
Biomass of the domesticated and wild animals was increased by a higher quality of grass.

Pastoralism is found in many variations throughout the world, generally where environmental characteristics such as aridity, poor soils, cold or hot temperature, and lack of water make crop growing difficult or impossible.
Pastoralism remains a way of life in Africa, the Tibetan plateau, the Eurasian steppes, the Andes, Patagonia, the Pampas, Australia, and other many other places.

Contents
1 Origins
2 Resources
2.1 Mobility
2.2 Information
2.2.1 Pastoralism and farm animal genetic resource
2.3 Tragedy of the commons

For more information, see Pastoralism .
Shifting cultivation From Wikipedia:
Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, then abandoned and allowed to revert to their natural vegetation while the cultivator moves on to another plot.
The period of cultivation is usually terminated when the soil shows signs of exhaustion or, more commonly, when the field is overrun by weeds.
The length of time that a field is cultivated is usually shorter than the period over which the land is allowed to regenerate by lying fallow.
This technique is often used in LEDCs (Less Economically Developed Countries) or LICs (Low Income Countries).
In some areas, cultivators use a practice of slash-and-burn as one element of their farming cycle.
Others employ land clearing without any burning, and some cultivators are purely migratory and do not use any cyclical method on a given plot.
Sometimes no slashing at all is needed where regrowth is purely of grasses, an outcome not uncommon when soils are near exhaustion and need to lie fallow.
In shifting agriculture, after two or three years of producing vegetable and grain crops on cleared land, the migrants abandon it for another plot.
Land is often cleared by slash-and-burn methods—trees, bushes and forests are cleared by slashing, and the remaining vegetation is burnt.
The ashes add potash to the soil.
Then the seeds are sown after the rains.

Contents
1 Political ecology
2 In Europe
3 Simple societies and environmental change
3.1 Feedback loops
3.2 Resources are cultural appraisals
4 In the contemporary world and global environmental change
5 Comparison with other ecological phenomena
6 Alternative practice in the pre-Columbian Amazon basin

For more information, see Shifting cultivation .
Organic farming From Wikipedia:
For more information, see Organic farming .

Organic farming is an alternative agricultural system which originated early in the 20th century in reaction to rapidly changing farming practices.
Certified organic agriculture accounts for 70 million hectares globally, with over half of that total in Australia.
Organic farming continues to be developed by various organic agriculture organizations today.
It is defined by the use of fertilizers of organic origin such as compost manure, green manure, and bone meal and places emphasis on techniques such as crop rotation and companion planting.
Biological pest control, mixed cropping and the fostering of insect predators are encouraged.
In general, organic standards are designed to allow the use of naturally occurring substances while prohibiting or strictly limiting synthetic substances.
For instance, naturally occurring pesticides such as pyrethrin and rotenone are permitted, while synthetic fertilizers and pesticides are generally prohibited.
Synthetic substances that are allowed include, for example, copper sulfate, elemental sulfur and Ivermectin.
Genetically modified organisms, nanomaterials, human sewage sludge, plant growth regulators, hormones, and antibiotic use in livestock husbandry are prohibited.
Reasons for advocation of organic farming include advantages in sustainability, openness, self-sufficiency, autonomy/independence, health, food security, and food safety.

Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by many nations, based in large part on the standards set by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), an international umbrella organization for organic farming organizations established in 1972.
Organic agriculture can be defined as:

an integrated farming system that strives for sustainability, the enhancement of soil fertility and biological diversity whilst, with rare exceptions, prohibiting synthetic pesticides, antibiotics, synthetic fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, and growth hormones.

Since 1990 the market for organic food and other products has grown rapidly, reaching $63 billion worldwide in 2012.
This demand has driven a similar increase in organically managed farmland that grew from 2001 to 2011 at a compounding rate of 8.9% per annum.

As of 2019, approximately 70,000,000 hectares (170,000,000 acres) worldwide were farmed organically, representing approximately 1.4 percent of total world farmland.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Terminology
2 Methods
2.1 Crop diversity
2.2 Soil management
2.3 Weed management
2.4 Controlling other organisms
2.5 Livestock
2.6 Genetic modification
2.7 Tools
3 Standards
3.1 Composting
4 Economics
4.1 Geographic producer distribution
4.2 Growth
4.3 Productivity
4.3.1 Long term studies
4.4 Profitability
4.5 Energy efficiency
4.6 Sales and marketing
4.7 Distributors
4.7.1 Direct-to-consumer sales
4.8 Labor and employment
4.9 World's food security
4.10 Capacity building in developing countries
4.10.1 Millennium Development Goals
4.11 Externalities
5 Disadvantages
5.1 Environmental impact and emissions
5.2 Nutrient leaching
5.3 Land use
5.4 Pesticides
5.5 Food quality and safety
5.6 Soil conservation
5.7 Biodiversity
5.8 Opposition to Labor Standards
6 Regional support for organic farming
6.1 China
6.2 India
6.3 Dominican Republic
6.4 Thailand

For more information, see Organic farming .
Monoculture From Wikipedia:
Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing a single crop, plant, or livestock species, variety, or breed in a field or farming system at a time.
Polyculture, where more than one crop is grown in the same space at the same time, is the alternative to monoculture.
Monoculture is widely used in both industrial farming and organic farming and has allowed increased efficiency in planting and harvest while simultaneously increasing the risk of exposure to diseases or pests.

Continuous monoculture, or monocropping, where the same species is grown year after year, can lead to the quicker buildup of pests and diseases, and then rapid spread where a uniform crop is susceptible to a pathogen.
Monocultures of African palm oil, sugar cane, pines, and soybeans can all be particularly aggressive to environment.
The practice has been criticized for its environmental effects and for having possible long term effects on agriculture and food supplies.
Diversity can be added both in time, as with a crop rotation or sequence, or in space, with a polyculture.

Oligoculture has been suggested to describe a crop rotation of just a few crops, as is practiced by several regions of the world.

Contents
1 Agriculture
1.1 Benefits
1.2 Risks
2 Forestry
3 Genetic Monocultures
3.1 Historic Examples of Monocultures
3.1.1 Irish Potato Famine
3.1.2 Bananas
3.1.3 Cattle
3.2 Benefits of Genetic Diversity
4 Polyculture

For more information, see Monoculture .
Polyculture From Wikipedia:
Polyculture is a form of agriculture in which more than one species is grown at the same time and place in imitation of the diversity of natural ecosystems.
Polyculture is the opposite of monoculture, in which only members of one plant or animal species are cultivated together.
Polyculture has traditionally been the most prevalent form of agriculture in most parts of the world and is growing in popularity today due to its environmental and health benefits.
There are many types of polyculture including annual polycultures such as intercropping and cover cropping, permaculture, and integrated aquaculture.
Polyculture is advantageous because of its ability to control pests, weeds, and disease without major chemical inputs.
As such, polyculture is considered a sustainable form of agriculture.
However, issues with crop yield and biological competition have caused many modern major industrial food producers to continue to rely on monoculture instead.

Contents
1 Historical and modern uses
2 Common practices
2.1 Annual polycultures
2.1.1 Intercropping
2.1.2 Cover cropping
2.1.3 Strip cropping
2.2 Permaculture
2.3 Integrated aquaculture
3 Functions
3.1 Pest management
3.2 Disease control
3.3 Weed management
4 Advantages
4.1 Sustainability
4.2 Human health
5 Effectiveness

For more information, see Polyculture .
Crop rotation From Wikipedia:
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar or different types of crops in the same area in sequenced seasons.
It is done so that the soil of farms is not used for only one set of nutrients.
It helps in reducing soil erosion and increases soil fertility and crop yield.

Growing the same crop in the same place for many years in a row (monocropping) gradually depletes the soil of certain nutrients.
With rotation, a crop that leaches the soil of one kind of nutrient is followed during the next growing season by a dissimilar crop that returns that nutrient to the soil or draws a different ratio of nutrients.
In addition, crop rotation mitigates the buildup of pathogens and pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped, and can also improve soil structure and fertility by increasing biomass from varied root structures.

Crop cycle is used in both conventional and organic farming systems.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Two-field system
1.2 Three-field system
1.3 Four-field rotation
1.4 Modern developments
2 Crop choice
2.1 Row crops
2.2 Legumes
2.3 Grasses and cereals
2.4 Green manure
3 Planning a rotation
4 Implementation
4.1 Incorporation of livestock
4.2 Organic farming
4.3 Intercropping
5 Benefits
5.1 Soil organic matter
5.2 Carbon sequestration
5.3 Nitrogen fixing
5.4 Pathogen and pest control
5.5 Weed management
5.6 Preventing soil erosion
5.7 Biodiversity
5.8 Farm productivity
5.9 Risk management
6 Challenges

For more information, see Crop rotation .
Tillage From Wikipedia:
Tillage is the agricultural preparation of soil by mechanical agitation of various types, such as digging, stirring, and overturning.
Examples of human-powered tilling methods using hand tools include shovelling, picking, mattock work, hoeing, and raking.
Examples of draft-animal-powered or mechanized work include ploughing (overturning with moldboards or chiseling with chisel shanks), rototilling, rolling with cultipackers or other rollers, harrowing, and cultivating with cultivator shanks (teeth).
Small-scale gardening and farming, for household food production or small business production, tends to use the smaller-scale methods, whereas medium- to large-scale farming tends to use the larger-scale methods.

Tillage that is deeper and more thorough is classified as primary, and tillage that is shallower and sometimes more selective of location is secondary.
Primary tillage such as ploughing tends to produce a rough surface finish, whereas secondary tillage tends to produce a smoother surface finish, such as that required to make a good seedbed for many crops.
Harrowing and rototilling often combine primary and secondary tillage into one operation.

"Tillage" can also mean the land that is tilled.
The word "cultivation" has several senses that overlap substantially with those of "tillage".
In a general context, both can refer to agriculture.
Within agriculture, both can refer to any kind of soil agitation.
Additionally, "cultivation" or "cultivating" may refer to an even narrower sense of shallow, selective secondary tillage of row crop fields that kills weeds while sparing the crop plants.

Contents
1 History of tilling
1.1 Primary and secondary tillage
1.2 Reduced tillage
1.3 Intensive tillage
1.4 Conservation tillage
1.5 Zone tillage
2 Effects of tillage
2.1 Positive
2.2 Negative
3 General comments
4 Definitions
5 Alternatives to tilling
6 Site preparation of forest land
6.1 Burning
6.2 Ameliorative intervention
6.3 Access
6.4 Mechanical
6.5 Mounding
6.6 Orientation of linear site preparation

For more information, see Tillage .
Irrigation From Wikipedia:
Irrigation is the application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals.
Irrigation helps to grow agricultural crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of less than average rainfall.
Irrigation also has other uses in crop production, including frost protection, suppressing weed growth in grain fields and preventing soil consolidation.
In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dry land farming.

Irrigation systems are also used for cooling livestock, dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining.
Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.

Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5,000 years and is the product of many cultures.
Historically, it was the basis for economies and societies across the globe, from Asia to the Southwestern United States.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Sri Lanka
1.2 China
1.3 Korea
1.4 North America
2 Present extent
3 Advantages of irrigation
4 Types of irrigation
4.1 Surface irrigation
4.2 Micro-irrigation
4.2.1 Drip irrigation
4.3 Sprinkler irrigation
4.3.1 Center pivot
4.3.2 Irrigation by lateral move (side roll, wheel line, wheelmove)
4.3.3 Lawn sprinkler systems
4.3.4 Hose-end sprinklers
4.4 Subirrigation
4.4.1 Subsurface textile irrigation
5 Water sources
6 Efficiency
7 Technical challenges
8 Impact on society

For more information, see Irrigation .
Nutrient management From Wikipedia:
Nutrient management is the science and practice directed to link soil, crop, weather, and hydrologic factors with cultural, irrigation, and soil and water conservation practices to achieve optimal nutrient use efficiency, crop yields, crop quality, and economic returns, while reducing off-site transport of nutrients (fertilizer) that may impact the environment.
It involves matching a specific field soil, climate, and crop management conditions to rate, source, timing, and place (commonly known as the 4R nutrient stewardship) of nutrient application.

Important factors that need to be considered when managing nutrients include (a) the application of nutrients considering the achievable optimum yields and, in some cases, crop quality; (b) the management, application, and timing of nutrients using a budget based on all sources and sinks active at the site; and (c) the management of soil, water, and crop to minimize the off-site transport of nutrients from nutrient leaching out of the root zone, surface runoff, and volatilization (or other gas exchanges).

There can be potential interactions because of differences in nutrient pathways and dynamics.
For instance, practices that reduce the off-site surface transport of a given nutrient may increase the leaching losses of other nutrients.
These complex dynamics present nutrient managers the difficult task of achieve the best balance for maximizing profit while contributing to the conservation of our biosphere.

Contents
1 Nutrient management plan
2 Nitrogen management
2.1 Nitrogen Management Practices that Improve Nitrogen Efficiency
2.2 Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
2.2.1 Reduction of N loss in runoff water and eroded soil
2.2.2 Reduction of the volatilization of N as ammonia gas
2.2.3 Prevention of the build-up of high soil nitrate concentrations
2.2.3.1 Nitrogen Rates
2.2.3.2 Soil Testing for N
2.2.3.3 Crop Testing for N
2.2.3.4 Precision agriculture
2.2.3.5 Timing of N Applications
2.2.3.6 N Forms, including Slow or Controlled Release Fertilizers and Inhibitors
2.2.3.7 N capture
2.2.4 Water management
2.2.4.1 Conservation tillage
2.2.4.2 N Fertilizer Application Method and Placement
2.2.4.3 Good irrigation management can dramatically improve N-use efficiency
2.2.4.4 Drainage Systems
2.2.5 Use of simulation models
2.3 Additional measures to minimize environmental impact
2.3.1 Conservation Buffers
2.3.2 Constructed Wetlands

For more information, see Nutrient management .
Genetically modified food From Wikipedia:
Genetically modified foods (GM foods), also known as genetically engineered foods (GE foods), or bioengineered foods are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using the methods of genetic engineering.
Genetic engineering techniques allow for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits when compared to previous methods, such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.

Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its unsuccessful Flavr Savr delayed-ripening tomato.
Most food modifications have primarily focused on cash crops in high demand by farmers such as soybean, corn, canola, and cotton.
Genetically modified crops have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and for better nutrient profiles.
GM livestock have been developed, although, as of November 2013, none were on the market.

There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.
Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.
The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.

However, there are ongoing public concerns related to food safety, regulation, labelling, environmental impact, research methods, and the fact that some GM seeds, along with all new plant varieties, are subject to plant breeders' rights owned by corporations.

Contents
1 Definition
2 History
3 Process
4 Crops
4.1 Fruits and vegetables
4.2 Corn
4.3 Soy
4.4 Wheat
5 Derivative products
5.1 Corn starch and starch sugars, including syrups
5.2 Lecithin
5.3 Sugar
5.4 Vegetable oil
6 Other uses
6.1 Animal feed
6.2 Proteins
6.3 Livestock
6.3.1 Salmon
7 Health and safety
7.1 Testing
8 Regulation
8.1 United States regulations
8.2 Labeling
8.3 Detection
9 Controversies

For more information, see Genetically modified food .
Genetically modified crops From Wikipedia:
Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods.
In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species.
Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide), or improving the nutrient profile of the crop.
Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.

Farmers have widely adopted GM technology.
Acreage increased from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 185.1 million hectares in 2016, some 12% of global cropland.
As of 2016, major crop (soybean, maize, canola and cotton) traits consist of herbicide tolerance (95.9 million hectares) insect resistance (25.2 million hectares), or both (58.5 million hectares).
In 2015, 53.6 million ha of GM maize were under cultivation (almost 1/3 of the maize crop).
GM maize outperformed its predecessors: yield was 5.6 to 24.5% higher with less mycotoxins (−28.8%), fumonisin (−30.6%) and thricotecens (−36.5%).
Non-target organisms were unaffected, except for Braconidae, represented by a parasitoid of European corn borer, the target of Lepidoptera active Bt maize.
Biogeochemical parameters such as lignin content did not vary, while biomass decomposition was higher.

A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that GM technology adoption had reduced chemical pesticide use by 37%, increased crop yields by 22%, and increased farmer profits by 68%.
This reduction in pesticide use has been ecologically beneficial, but benefits may be reduced by overuse.
Yield gains and pesticide reductions are larger for insect-resistant crops than for herbicide-tolerant crops.
Yield and profit gains are higher in developing countries than in developed countries.

There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.
Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.
The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.

However, opponents have objected to GM crops on grounds including environmental impacts, food safety, whether GM crops are needed to address food needs, whether they are sufficiently accessible to farmers in developing countries and concerns over subjecting crops to intellectual property law.
Safety concerns led 38 countries, including 19 in Europe, to officially prohibit their cultivation.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Nature and traditional agriculture
1.2 Direct manipulation
2 Methods
3 Types of modifications
3.1 Transgenic
3.2 Cisgenic
3.3 Subgenic
3.4 Multiple trait integration
4 Economics
5 Yield
6 Traits
6.1 Extended shelf life
6.2 Improved photosynthesis
6.3 Improved nutritional value
6.4 Stress resistance
6.5 Pest resistance
6.6 By-products
6.7 Bioremediation
6.8 Asexual reproduction
6.9 Other
7 Crops
7.1 Herbicide tolerance
7.2 Insect resistance
7.3 Other modified traits
7.4 Development
8 Farming practices
8.1 Resistance
8.2 Plant protection
8.3 Tillage
9 Regulation
10 Production
11 Controversy

For more information, see Genetically modified crops .

For more information, see
Food production .

Food production is treated in a separate module.

From Wikipedia:
Primary sector of the economy
The primary sector of the economy includes any industry involved in the extraction and collection of natural resources; such as farming, forestry, mining and fishing.

The primary sector tends to make up a larger portion of the economy in developing countries than it does in developed countries.
For example, in 2018, agriculture, forestry, and fishing comprised more than 15% of GDP in sub-Saharan Africa but less than 1% of GDP in North America.

Mining in 19th-century South Wales provides a case study of how an economy can come to rely on one form of activity.

In developed countries primary sector has become more technologically advanced - witness for instance the mechanization of farming as opposed to hand-picking and -planting.
More developed economies may invest additional capital in primary means of production.
As an example, in the United States' corn belt, combine harvesters pick the corn, and sprayers spray large amounts of insecticides, herbicides and fungicides, producing a higher yield than is possible using less capital-intensive techniques.
These technological advances and investment allow the primary sector to employ a smaller workforce - in this way, developed countries tend to have a smaller percentage of their workforce involved in primary activities, instead having a higher percentage involved in the secondary and tertiary sectors.

Developed countries are allowed to maintain and develop their primary industries even further due to the excess wealth.
For instance, European Union agricultural subsidies provide buffers against fluctuating inflation-rates and prices of agricultural produce.
This allows developed countries to export their agricultural products at extraordinarily low prices.
This makes them extremely competitive against those of poor or underdeveloped countries that maintain free-market policies and low or non-existent tariffs to counter cheap goods.
Such price differences also come about due to more efficient production in developed economies, given farm machinery, better information available to farmers, and (often) larger scale.

Some economies exhibit a particular emphasis on the basic food-providing parts of the primary sector (farming and fishing), wishing to guarantee via autarky in food-production that citizens can eat even in extreme circumstances (such as war, blockade, or sanctions).
The agricultural revolution may not have preceded the industrial revolution entirely by chance.

Contents
1 List of countries by agricultural output

Raw material From Wikipedia:
A raw material, also known as a feedstock, unprocessed material, or primary commodity, is a basic material that is used to produce goods, finished products, energy, or intermediate materials which are feedstock for future finished products.
As feedstock, the term connotes these materials are bottleneck assets and are highly important with regard to producing other products.
An example of this is crude oil, which is a raw material and a feedstock used in the production of industrial chemicals, fuels, plastics, and pharmaceutical goods; lumber is a raw material used to produce a variety of products including all types of furniture.
The term "raw material" denotes materials in minimally processed or unprocessed in states; e.g., raw latex, crude oil, cotton, coal, raw biomass, iron ore, air, logs, or water i.e. "any product of agriculture, forestry, fishing and any other mineral that is in its natural form or which has undergone the transformation required to prepare it for internationally marketing in substantial volumes."

Contents
1 Ceramic
2 Metallic
2.1 Iron ore
3 Conflicts of raw materials

For more information, see Raw material .
Natural resource From Wikipedia:
Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind.
This includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, electrical properties and forces etc.
On Earth it includes sunlight, atmosphere, water, land (includes all minerals) along with all vegetation, crops and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances.

Particular areas such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva are often characterized by the biodiversity and geodiversity existent in their ecosystems.
Natural resources may be further classified in different ways.
Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be found within the environment.
Every man-made product is composed of natural resources (at its fundamental level).
A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, air, and as well as a living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form that must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, rare earth metals, petroleum, and most forms of energy.

There is much debate worldwide over natural resource allocations, this is particularly true during periods of increasing scarcity and shortages (depletion and overconsumption of resources).

Contents
1 Classification
2 Extraction
3 Depletion of resources
4 Protection
5 Management
6 Natural resources by country

For more information, see Natural resource .

× Clay, Gravel and Stone

Clay From Wikipedia:
For more information, see Clay
...
Historical and modern uses

Clays exhibit plasticity when mixed with water in certain proportions.
However, when dry, clay becomes firm and when fired in a kiln, permanent physical and chemical changes occur.
These changes convert the clay into a ceramic material.
Because of these properties, clay is used for making pottery, both utilitarian and decorative, and construction products, such as bricks, wall and floor tiles.
Different types of clay, when used with different minerals and firing conditions, are used to produce earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain.
Prehistoric humans discovered the useful properties of clay.
Some of the earliest pottery shards recovered are from central Honshu, Japan.
They are associated with the Jōmon culture and deposits they were recovered from have been dated to around 14,000 BC.

Clay tablets were the first known writing medium.
Scribes wrote by inscribing them with cuneiform script using a blunt reed called a stylus.
Purpose-made clay balls were also used as sling ammunition.

Clays sintered in fire were the first form of ceramic.
Bricks, cooking pots, art objects, dishware, smoking pipes, and even musical instruments such as the ocarina can all be shaped from clay before being fired.
Clay is also used in many industrial processes, such as paper making, cement production, and chemical filtering.
Until the late 20th century, bentonite clay was widely used as a mold binder in the manufacture of sand castings.

Clay, being relatively impermeable to water, is also used where natural seals are needed, such as in the cores of dams, or as a barrier in landfills against toxic seepage (lining the landfill, preferably in combination with geotextiles).
(See puddling.)

Studies in the early 21st century have investigated clay's absorption capacities in various applications, such as the removal of heavy metals from waste water and air purification.

Medical use
Traditional uses of clay as medicine goes back to prehistoric times.
An example is Armenian bole, which is used to soothe an upset stomach.
Some animals such as parrots and pigs ingest clay for similar reasons.
Kaolin clay and attapulgite have been used as anti-diarrheal medicines.

As a building material
Clay as the defining ingredient of loam is one of the oldest building materials on Earth, among other ancient, naturally-occurring geologic materials such as stone and organic materials like wood.
Between one-half and two-thirds of the world's population, in both traditional societies as well as developed countries, still live or work in buildings made with clay, often baked into brick, as an essential part of its load-bearing structure.
Also a primary ingredient in many natural building techniques, clay is used to create adobe, cob, cordwood, and rammed earth structures and building elements such as wattle and daub, clay plaster, clay render case, clay floors and clay paints and ceramic building material.
Clay was used as a mortar in brick chimneys and stone walls where protected from water.

For more information, see Clay .
Clay pit From Wikipedia:
A clay pit is a quarry or mine for the extraction of clay, which is generally used for manufacturing pottery, bricks or Portland cement.
Quarries where clay is mined to make bricks are sometimes called brick pits.

A brickyard or brickworks is often located alongside a clay pit to reduce the transport costs of the raw material.
Today, pottery producers are often not sited near the source of their clay and usually do not own the clay deposits.
In these industries, the other essential raw material is fuel for firing and potteries may be located near to fuel sources.

Former claypits are sometimes filled with water and used for recreational purposes such as sailing and scuba diving.
The Eden Project at Bodelva near St Austell, Cornwall, UK is a major redevelopment of a former china clay (kaolin) pit for educational and environmental purposes.

For more information, see Clay pit .
Gravel pit From Wikipedia:
A gravel pit is an open-pit mine for the extraction of gravel.
Gravel pits often lie in river valleys where the water table is high, so they may naturally fill with water to form ponds or lakes.
Old, abandoned gravel pits are normally used either as nature reserves, or as amenity areas for water sports, landfills and walking.
In addition, many gravel pits in the United Kingdom have been stocked with freshwater fish such as the common carp to create coarse fishing locations.
Gravel and sand are mined for concrete, construction aggregate and other industrial mineral uses.

Contents
1 Gallery

For more information, see Gravel pit .
Quarry From Wikipedia:
A quarry is a type of open-pit mine in which dimension stone, rock, construction aggregate, riprap, sand, gravel, or slate is excavated from the ground.

The word quarry can also include the underground quarrying for stone, such as Bath stone.

Contents
1 Types of rock
2 Slabs
3 Problems
3.1 Quarry lakes

For more information, see Quarry .
Quarry - Types of rock From Wikipedia:
Types of rock extracted from quarries include:

Chalk
China clay
Cinder
Clay
Coal
Construction aggregate (sand and gravel)
Coquina
Diabase
Gabbro
Granite
Gritstone
Gypsum
Limestone
Marble
Ores
Phosphate rock
Quartz
Sandstone
Slate

For more information, see Quarry - Types of rock .
List of decorative stones From Wikipedia:
This is a geographical list of natural stone used for decorative purposes in construction and monumental sculpture produced in various countries.

The dimension-stone industry classifies stone based on appearance and hardness as either "granite", "marble" or "slate".

The granite of the dimension-stone industry along with truly granitic rock also includes gneiss, gabbro, anorthosite and even some sedimentary rocks.

Natural stone is used as architectural stone (construction, flooring, cladding, counter tops, curbing, etc.) and as raw block and monument stone for the funerary trade.
Natural stone is also used in custom stone engraving.
The engraved stone can be either decorative or functional.
Natural memorial stones are used as natural burial markers.

Contents
1 Africa
2 Asia
2.1 India
2.2 Pakistan
2.3 Iran
3 Europe
3.1 Belgium
3.2 France
3.3 Greece
3.4 Italy
3.5 Norway
3.6 Poland
3.7 United Kingdom
4 Middle East
4.1 Israel/Palestine
4.2 Turkey
5 North America
5.1 Canada
5.2 Mesoamerica
5.3 United States
6 Oceania
7 South America

For more information, see List of decorative stones .
Stone industry From Wikipedia:
Stone industry refers to the part of the primary sector of the economy, similar to the mining industry, but concerned with excavations of stones, in particular granite, marble, slate and sandstone.
Other products of the industry include crushed stone and dimension stone.

Stone industry is one of the oldest in the world.
Creation of stone tools (microliths industry) in the region of South Africa has been dated to about 60,000–70,000 years ago.
Granite and marble mining existing as far back as ancient Egypt.
Crushed stone was used extensively by the first great road building civilizations, such as ancient Greece and ancient Rome.

For more information, see Stone industry .

.

× Timber

Logging From Wikipedia:
Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars.
Logging is the process of cutting trees, processing them, and moving them to a location for transport.
It is the beginning of a supply chain that provides raw material for many products societies worldwide use for housing, construction, energy, and consumer paper products.
Logging systems are also used to manage forests, reduce the risk of wildfires, and restore ecosystem functions.

In forestry, the term logging is sometimes used narrowly to describe the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard.
In common usage, however, the term may cover a range of forestry or silviculture activities.

Illegal logging refers to what in forestry might be called timber theft by the timber mafia.
It can also refer to the harvesting, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws.
The harvesting procedure itself may be illegal, including using corrupt means to gain access to forests; extraction without permission or from a protected area; the cutting of protected species; or the extraction of timber in excess of agreed limits.

Clearcut logging is not necessarily considered a type of logging but a harvesting or silviculture method, and is simply called clearcutting or block cutting. In the forest products industry logging companies may be referred to as logging contractors, with the smaller, non-union crews referred to as "gyppo loggers".

Cutting trees with the highest value and leaving those with lower value, often diseased or malformed trees, is referred to as high grading.
It is sometimes called selective logging, and confused with selection cutting, the practice of managing stands by harvesting a proportion of trees.

Logging usually refers to above-ground forestry logging.
Submerged forests exist on land that has been flooded by damming to create reservoirs.
Such trees are logged using underwater logging or by the lowering of the reservoirs in question.
Ootsa Lake and Williston Lake in British Columbia, Canada are notable examples where timber recovery has been needed to remove inundated forests.

Contents
1 Clearcutting
2 Logging methods
2.1 Tree-length logging / Stem Only Harvesting (SOH)
2.2 Whole-tree logging (WTL)
2.3 Cut-to-length logging
3 Transporting logs
4 Safety considerations

For more information, see Logging .
Forestry From Wikipedia:
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, using, conserving, and repairing forests, woodlands, and associated resources for human and environmental benefits.
Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands.
The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.

Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide.
A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester.
Other common terms are: a verderer, or a silviculturalist.
Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.

Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere, and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology.

Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries.
For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area, wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Background
1.2 Early modern forestry development
1.3 Forest conservation and early globalization
1.4 Mechanization
1.5 Early journals which are still present
2 Forestry in the 21st century
3 Foresters
4 Forestry plans
5 Forestry as a science
6 Genetic diversity in forestry
7 Education
7.1 History of forestry education
7.2 Forestry education today
7.3 Miscellaneous about Forestry research and education

For more information, see Forestry .
List of countries by forest area From Wikipedia:
This article is a list of countries by forest area.
Types of places listed include the entire planet, continents, regions, countries, provinces, states, and territories.
Percentage data was calculated using information from the CIA's World Factbook 2011.

Contents
1 Planet, continents and regions
2 Countries
3 Provinces, states and territories

For more information, see List of countries by forest area .

.

× Industrial Gases

Industrial gas From Wikipedia:
Industrial gases are the gaseous materials that are manufactured for use in industry.
The principal gases provided are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon, hydrogen, helium and acetylene; although a huge variety of gases and mixtures are available in gas cylinders.
The industry producing these gases is also known as industrial gas, which is seen as also encompassing the supply of equipment and technology to produce and use the gases.
Their production is a part of the wider chemical Industry (where industrial gases are often seen as "specialty chemicals").

Industrial gases are used in a wide range of industries, which include oil and gas, petrochemicals, chemicals, power, mining, steelmaking, metals, environmental protection, medicine, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food, water, fertilizers, nuclear power, electronics and aerospace.
Industrial gas is sold to other industrial enterprises; typically comprising large orders to corporate industrial clients, covering a size range from building a process facility or pipeline down to cylinder gas supply.

Some trade scale business is done, typically through tied local agents who are supplied wholesale.
This business covers the sale or hire of gas cylinders and associated equipment to tradesmen and occasionally the general public.
This includes products such as balloon helium, dispensing gases for beer kegs, welding gases and welding equipment, LPG and medical oxygen.

Retail sales of small scale gas supply are not confined to just the industrial gas companies or their agents.
A wide variety of hand-carried small gas containers, which may be called cylinders, bottles, cartridges, capsules or canisters are available to supply LPG, butane, propane, carbon dioxide or nitrous oxide.
Examples are Whipped-cream chargers, powerlets, campingaz and sodastream.

Contents
1 Early history of gases
2 Gas production technology
3 Gas distribution
3.1 Mode of gas supply
3.2 Gas delivery
4 What defines an industrial gas
5 Gases
5.1 Elemental gases
5.2 Other common industrial gases
5.3 Important liquefied gases
6 Industrial gas applications
7 Companies

For more information, see Industrial gas .
Industrial gas - gases From Wikipedia:
Elemental gases

Air gases
nitrogen (N2)
oxygen (O2)
argon (Ar)
Noble gases
helium (He)
neon (Ne)
argon (Ar)
krypton (Kr)
xenon (Xe)
radon (Rn)

The other Elemental gases
hydrogen (H2)
chlorine (Cl2) (vapor)
fluorine (F2)

Other common industrial gases
This list shows the other most common gases sold by industrial gas companies.

Compound gases
ammonia (NH3)
carbon dioxide (CO2)
carbon monoxide (CO)
hydrogen chloride (HCl)
nitrous oxide (N2O)
nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)
sulfur dioxide (SO2)
sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
Hydrocarbon gases
methane (CH4)
acetylene (C2H2)
ethane (C2H6)
ethene (C2H4)
propane (C3H8)
propene (C3H6)
butane (C4H10)
butene (C4H8)

Significant gas mixtures
air
breathing gases
forming gas
welding shielding gas
synthesis gas
Mixed Refrigerant used in LNG cycles
There are many gas mixtures possible.

Important liquefied gases

Produced from air
liquid nitrogen (LIN)
liquid oxygen (LOX)
liquid argon (LAR)

Produced from various sources
liquid carbon dioxide

Produced from hydrocarbon feedstock
liquid hydrogen
liquid helium

Gas mixtures produced from hydrocarbon feedstock
Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

For more information, see Industrial gas - gases.
Industrial gas applications From Wikipedia:
The uses of industrial gases are diverse.

The following is a small list of areas of use:

aerosol propellants
Airgun / paintball
beer widget
calibration gas
Coolant
Cryogenics
Cryogenic fuel
Cutting and welding
Dielectric gas
Environmental protection
Fire fighting / gaseous fire suppression
Food processing
packaging gas
Gas discharge lamp
Metrology & measurement
Laboratory and instrumentation
Gases for safety and inerting
Glass, ceramics, other minerals
Lifting gas
Medical gas therapy
Metallurgy
Propellant
Refrigerators
rocket propellant
Rubber, plastics, paint
Semiconductor industry in Semiconductor fabrication plants
Soda fountain
Water treatment / Industrial water treatment
Underwater diving

For more information, see Industrial gas applications .

.

For more information, see
Primary sector of the economy .

The aim here is to describe how various raw materials are refined/processed into usable materials that are then either distributesd as a finished product (such as water or petroleum), or passed further along to manufacturing industries (materials such purified metals or timber), where further operations are necessary to produce finished products.

Processing of stone

Crushed stone From Wikipedia:
Crushed stone or angular rock is a form of construction aggregate, typically produced by mining a suitable rock deposit and breaking the removed rock down to the desired size using crushers.
It is distinct from gravel which is produced by natural processes of weathering and erosion, and typically has a more rounded shape.

Contents
1 Uses
2 Background
3 United States statistical data
4 Landscape use

For more information, see Crushed stone .
Dimension stone From Wikipedia:
Dimension stone is natural stone or rock that has been selected and finished (e.g., trimmed, cut, drilled, ground, or other) to specific sizes or shapes.
Color, texture and pattern, and surface finish of the stone are also normal requirements.
Another important selection criterion is durability: the time measure of the ability of dimension stone to endure and to maintain its essential and distinctive characteristics of strength, resistance to decay, and appearance.

Quarries that produce dimension stone or crushed stone (used as construction aggregate) are interconvertible.
Since most quarries can produce either one, a crushed stone quarry can be converted to dimension stone production.
However, first the stone shattered by heavy and indiscriminate blasting must be removed.
Dimension stone is separated by more precise and delicate techniques, such as diamond wire saws, diamond belt saws, burners (jet-piercers), or light and selective blasting with Primacord, a weak explosive.

Contents
1 Stone and rock types
2 Major applications
3 Production
4 "Building green" with dimension stone
5 Sustainability
6 Recycling and reuse
7 Life-cycle assessment and best practices
8 Selection and cleaning
9 Finishes

For more information, see Dimension stone .

Extractive metallurgy From Wikipedia:
Extractive metallurgy is a branch of metallurgical engineering wherein process and methods of extraction of metals from their natural mineral deposits are studied.
The field is a materials science, covering all aspects of the types of ore, washing, concentration, separation, chemical processes and extraction of pure metal and their alloying to suit various applications, sometimes for direct use as a finished product, but more often in a form that requires further working to achieve the given properties to suit the applications.

The field of ferrous and non-ferrous extractive metallurgy have specialties that are generically grouped into the categories of mineral processing, hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, and electrometallurgy based on the process adopted to extract the metal.
Several processes are used for extraction of same metal depending on occurrence and chemical requirements.

Contents
1 Mineral processing
2 Hydrometallurgy
3 Pyrometallurgy
4 Electrometallurgy

For more information, see Extractive metallurgy .
Hydrometallurgy From Wikipedia:
Hydrometallurgy is a method for obtaining metals from their ores.
It is a technique within the field of extractive metallurgy involving the use of aqueous chemistry for the recovery of metals from ores, concentrates, and recycled or residual materials.
Metal chemical processing techniques that complement hydrometallurgy are pyrometallurgy, vapour metallurgy and molten salt electrometallurgy.
Hydrometallurgy is typically divided into three general areas:

Leaching
Solution concentration and purification
Metal or metal compound recovery

Contents
1 Leaching
1.1 In-situ leaching
1.2 Heap leaching
1.3 Vat leaching
1.4 Tank leaching
1.5 Autoclave leaching
2 Solution concentration and purification
2.1 Solvent extraction
2.2 Ion exchange
3 Metal Recovery
3.1 Electrolysis
3.2 Precipitation

For more information, see Hydrometallurgy .
Pyrometallurgy From Wikipedia:
Pyrometallurgy is a branch of extractive metallurgy.
It consists of the thermal treatment of minerals and metallurgical ores and concentrates to bring about physical and chemical transformations in the materials to enable recovery of valuable metals.
Pyrometallurgical treatment may produce products able to be sold such as pure metals, or intermediate compounds or alloys, suitable as feed for further processing.
Examples of elements extracted by pyrometallurgical processes include the oxides of less reactive elements like iron, copper, zinc, chromium, tin, and manganese.

Pyrometallurgical processes are generally grouped into one or more of the following categories:

calcining,
roasting,
smelting,
refining.

Most pyrometallurgical processes require energy input to sustain the temperature at which the process takes place.
The energy is usually provided in the form of combustion or from electrical heat.
When sufficient material is present in the feed to sustain the process temperature solely by exothermic reaction (i.e. without the addition of fuel or electrical heat), the process is said to be "autogenous".
Processing of some sulfide ores exploit the exothermicity of their combustion

Contents
1 Calcination
2 Roasting
3 Smelting
4 Refining

For more information, see Pyrometallurgy .
Electrometallurgy From Wikipedia:
Electrometallurgy is a method that uses electrical energy to produce metals by electrolysis.
Electrometallurgy is usually the last stage in metal production and is therefore preceded by pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical operations.
The electrolysis can be done on a molten metal oxide (smelt electrolysis) which is used for example to produce aluminium from aluminium oxide via the Hall-Hérault process.
Electrolysis can be used as a final refining stage in pyrometallurgical metal production (electrorefining) and it is also used for reduction of a metal from an aqueous metal salt solution produced by hydrometallurgy (electrowinning).

Electrometallurgy is the field concerned with the processes of metal electrodeposition There are four categories of these processes:

- Electrowinning, the extraction of metal from ores

- Electrorefining, the purification of metals.
Metal powder production by electrodeposition is included in this category, or sometimes electrowinning, or a separate category depending on application.

- Electroplating, the deposition of a layer of one metal on another

- Electroforming, the manufacture of, usually thin, metal parts through electroplating

For more information, see Electrometallurgy .
Mineral processing From Wikipedia:
In the field of extractive metallurgy, mineral processing, also known as ore dressing, is the process of separating commercially valuable minerals from their ores.

Contents
1 History
2 Unit operations
2.1 Comminution
2.2 Sizing
2.3 Concentration
2.4 Gravity concentration
2.5 Froth flotation
2.6 Electrostatic separation
2.7 Magnetic separation
2.8 Automated Ore Sorting
2.9 Dewatering
3 Other processes

For more information, see Mineral processing .

Timber rafting From Wikipedia:
Timber rafting is a log transportation method in which logs are tied together into rafts and drifted or pulled across a water body or down a river.
It is arguably the second cheapest method of transportation of timber, next after log driving.
Both methods may be referred to as timber floating.

Contents
1 Historical rafting
2 Construction
3 Timber rafting in the southeastern United States

For more information, see Timber rafting .
Log driving From Wikipedia:
Log driving is a means of moving logs (sawn tree trunks) from a forest to sawmills and pulp mills downstream using the current of a river.
It was the main transportation method of the early logging industry in Europe and North America.

Contents
1 History
2 Popular culture
3 Sources

For more information, see Log driving .
Forest railway From Wikipedia:
A forest railway, forest tram, timber line, logging railway or logging railroad is a mode of railway transport which is used for forestry tasks, primarily the transportation of felled logs to sawmills or railway stations.

In most cases this form of transport utilised narrow gauges, and were temporary in nature, and in rough and sometimes difficult to access terrain.

Contents
1 History
2 Forest railways in Europe
2.1 Germany (selection)
2.2 Austria
2.3 France
2.4 Poland
2.5 Slovakia
2.6 Sweden
2.7 Hungary
2.8 Romania
2.9 Russia
3 Logging railroads in North America
3.1 Canada
3.2 Mexico
3.3 United States
3.3.1 California
3.3.2 Nevada
3.3.3 New England
3.3.4 New Mexico
3.3.5 Oregon
3.3.6 South Carolina
3.3.7 West Virginia
3.3.8 Washington
4 Forest railways in Asia
4.1 Indonesia
4.2 Taiwan
5 Forest railways in Oceania
5.1 Australia
5.2 New Zealand
6 Other railways for the transport of goods

For more information, see Forest railway .
Logging roads From Wikipedia:
Logging roads are constructed to provide access to the forest for logging and other forest management operations.
They are commonly narrow, winding, and unpaved, but main haul roads can be widened, straightened or paved if traffic volume warrants it.

The choice of road design standards is a trade off between construction costs and haul costs (which the road is designed to reduce).
A road that serves only a few stands will be used by relatively few trucks over its lifetime, so it makes sense to save construction costs with a narrow, winding, unpaved road that adds to the time (and haul costs) of these few trips.
A main haul road serving a large area however will be used by many trucks each day, and each trip will be shorter (saving time and money) if the road is straighter and wider, with a smoother surface.

Logging trucks are generally given right of way.
In areas where this practice is regulated (or is supposed to be) non-highway roads with heavy logging traffic may be "radio-controlled", which is to say a CB radio on board any vehicle on the road is advised for safety reasons.

For more information, see Logging roads .
Lumber From Wikipedia:
Lumber (North American English) or timber (used in the rest of the English-speaking world) is a type of wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production.
Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has many other uses as well.

There are two main types of lumber.
It may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces.
Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and other items requiring additional cutting and shaping.
It is available in many species, usually hardwoods; but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost.

Finished lumber is supplied in standard sizes, mostly for the construction industry – primarily softwood, from coniferous species, including pine, fir and spruce (collectively spruce-pine-fir), cedar, and hemlock, but also some hardwood, for high-grade flooring.
It is more commonly made from softwood than hardwoods, and 80% of lumber comes from softwood.

Contents
1 Terminology
1.1 Remanufactured lumber
1.2 Plastic lumber
2 Conversion of wood logs
3 Dimensional lumber
3.1 Historical Chinese construction
3.2 North American softwoods
3.3 Grades and standards
3.4 North American hardwoods
3.5 Engineered lumber
3.6 Various pieces and cuts
3.7 Timber piles
4 Defects in lumber
4.1 Conversion
4.2 Defects due to fungi and animals
4.3 Natural forces
4.4 Seasoning
5 Durability and service life
5.1 Moisture control
5.2 Controlling termites and other insects
5.3 Preservatives
6 Timber framing
7 Environmental effects of lumber
7.1 Residual wood

For more information, see Lumber .
Engineered wood From Wikipedia:
Engineered wood, also called mass timber, composite wood, man-made wood, or manufactured board, includes a range of derivative wood products which are manufactured by binding or fixing the strands, particles, fibres, or veneers or boards of wood, together with adhesives, or other methods of fixation to form composite material.
The panels vary in size but can range upwards of 64 by 8 feet (20m x 2.4m) and in the case of CLT can be of any thickness from a few inches to 16 inches or more.
These products are engineered to precise design specifications which are tested to meet national or international standards.
Engineered wood products are used in a variety of applications, from home construction to commercial buildings to industrial products.
The products can be used for joists and beams that replace steel in many building projects.
The term Mass Timber to describe this group of building materials was popularized by architect Michael Green (Michael Green Architecture), a prominent champion of engineered timber construction.

Typically, engineered wood products are made from the same hardwoods and softwoods used to manufacture lumber.
Sawmill scraps and other wood waste can be used for engineered wood composed of wood particles or fibers, but whole logs are usually used for veneers, such as plywood, MDF or particle board.
Some engineered wood products, like oriented strand board (OSB), can use trees from the poplar family, a common but non-structural species.

Alternatively, it is also possible to manufacture similar engineered bamboo from bamboo; and similar engineered cellulosic products from other lignin-containing materials such as rye straw, wheat straw, rice straw, hemp stalks, kenaf stalks, or sugar cane residue, in which case they contain no actual wood but rather vegetable fibers.

Flat pack furniture is typically made out of man-made wood due to its low manufacturing costs and its low weight.

Contents
1 Types of products
1.1 Plywood
1.2 Densified wood
1.2.1 Chemically densified wood
1.3 Fibreboard
1.4 Particle board
1.5 Oriented strand board
1.6 Laminated timber
1.7 Laminated veneer
1.8 Cross laminated
1.9 Parallel strand
1.10 Laminated strand
1.11 Finger joint
1.12 Beams
1.13 Trusses
1.14 Transparent wood composites
2 Advantages
3 Disadvantages
4 Properties
5 Engineered wood flooring manufacturing
5.1 Lamella
5.2 Core/substrate
5.3 Aesthetics
6 Adhesives
6.1 Health concerns
7 Other fixations
8 Standards

For more information, see Engineered wood .
Wood production From Wikipedia:
Lumber and wood products are created from the trunks and branches of trees through a series of steps, as follows.

Contents
1 Harvesting
2 Timber mills
3 Uses
4 Hardwoods and softwoods
5 Changes in technology

For more information, see Wood production .
Sawmill From Wikipedia:
A sawmill or lumber mill is a facility where logs are cut into lumber.
Modern saw mills use a motorized saw to cut logs lengthwise to make long pieces, and crosswise to length depending on standard or custom sizes (dimensional lumber).
The "portable" saw mill is iconic and of simple operation—the logs lay flat on a steel bed and the motorized saw cuts the log horizontally along the length of the bed, by the operator manually pushing the saw.
The most basic kind of saw mill consists of a chainsaw and a customized jig ("Alaskan saw mill"), with similar horizontal operation.
...
Contents
1 Sawmill process
2 Pre-Industrial Revolution
3 Industrial Revolution
4 Current trends
5 Gallery

For more information, see Sawmill .
Pulp (paper) From Wikipedia:
Pulp is a lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating cellulose fibres from wood, fiber crops, waste paper, or rags.
Many kinds of paper are made from wood with nothing else mixed into them.
This includes newspapers, magazines and even toilet paper.
Pulp is one of the most abundant raw materials.

Contents
1 History
2 Wood pulp
2.1 Harvesting trees
2.2 Preparation for pulping
2.3 Pulping
2.3.1 Mechanical pulp
2.3.2 Thermomechanical pulp
2.3.3 Chemi-Thermomechanical pulp
2.3.4 Chemical pulp
2.3.5 Recycled pulp
2.3.6 Organosolv pulping
2.3.7 Alternative pulping methods
2.4 Bleaching
3 Alternatives to wood pulp
4 Market pulp
5 Environmental concerns
5.1 Forest resources
5.2 Effluents from pulp mills
5.3 Odor problems
6 Applications
6.1 Paper production
7 Economics

For more information, see Pulp (paper) .

Water treatment From Wikipedia:
Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it more acceptable for a specific end-use.
The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned to the environment. Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use.
This treatment is crucial to human health and allows humans to benefit from both drinking and irrigation use.

Contents
1 History
2 Treatment for drinking water production
2.1 Processes
3 Industrial water treatment
4 Desalination
5 Portable water purification
6 Ultra pure water production
7 Developing countries
8 Energy consumption
9 Regulation
9.1 United States

For more information, see Water treatment .
Water purification
For more information, see Water purification .

From Wikipedia:
Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids, and gases from water.
The goal is to produce water fit for specific purposes.
Most water is purified and disinfected for human consumption (drinking water), but water purification may also be carried out for a variety of other purposes, including medical, pharmacological, chemical, and industrial applications.
The methods used include physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation; biological processes such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon; chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination; and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.

Water purification may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, and fungi as well as reduce the concentration of a range of dissolved and particulate matter.

The standards for drinking water quality are typically set by governments or by international standards.
These standards usually include minimum and maximum concentrations of contaminants, depending on the intended use of the water.

Visual inspection cannot determine if water is of appropriate quality.
Simple procedures such as boiling or the use of a household activated carbon filter are not sufficient for treating all possible contaminants that may be present in water from an unknown source.
Even natural spring water – considered safe for all practical purposes in the 19th century – must now be tested before determining what kind of treatment, if any, is needed.
Chemical and microbiological analysis, while expensive, are the only way to obtain the information necessary for deciding on the appropriate method of purification.

According to a 2007 World Health Organization (WHO) report, 1.1 billion people lack access to an improved drinking water supply; 88% of the 4 billion annual cases of diarrheal disease are attributed to unsafe water and inadequate sanitation and hygiene, while 1.8 million people die from diarrheal disease each year.
The WHO estimates that 94% of these diarrheal disease cases are preventable through modifications to the environment, including access to safe water.
Simple techniques for treating water at home, such as chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection, and for storing it in safe containers could save a huge number of lives each year.
Reducing deaths from waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing countries.

Contents
1 Sources of water
2 Treatment
2.1 Goals
2.2 Pretreatment
2.3 Coagulation and flocculation
2.4 Sedimentation
2.5 Dissolved air flotation
2.6 Filtration
2.7 Removal of ions and other dissolved substances
2.8 Disinfection
2.9 Portable water purification
2.10 Additional treatment options
3 Other water purification techniques
4 Safety and controversies
4.1 Demineralized water
5 History
5.1 Sand filter
5.2 Water chlorination

For more information, see Water purification .
Water filter From Wikipedia:
A water filter removes impurities by lowering contamination of water using a fine physical barrier, a chemical process, or a biological process.
Filters cleanse water to different extents for purposes such as providing agricultural irrigation, accessible drinking water, public and private aquariums, and the safe use of ponds and swimming pools.

Contents
1 Methods of filtration
2 Types
2.1 Water treatment plant filters
2.2 Point-of-use filters
2.3 Portable water filters
3 Certification in the United States
3.1 NSF International
3.2 Underwriters Laboratories
3.3 Water Quality Association
4 Water polishing
5 History

For more information, see Water filter .
Chloramination From Wikipedia:
Chloramination is the treatment of drinking water with a chloramine disinfectant.
Both chlorine and small amounts of ammonia are added to the water one at a time which react together to form chloramine (also called combined chlorine), a long lasting disinfectant.
Chloramine disinfection is used in both small and large water treatment plants.

Contents
1 Use
2 Chlorine versus chloramine
3 Adverse effects
3.1 N-nitrosodimethylamine

For more information, see Chloramination .
Water chlorination From Wikipedia:
Water chlorination is the process of adding chlorine or chlorine compounds such as sodium hypochlorite to water.
This method is used to kill certain bacteria and other microbes in tap water as chlorine is highly toxic.
In particular, chlorination is used to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid.

Contents
1 History
2 Biochemistry
2.1 Principles
2.2 Shock chlorination
3 Drawbacks
4 Dechlorinator

For more information, see Water chlorination .
Water fluoridation For more information, see Water fluoridation .

From Wikipedia:
Water fluoridation is the controlled adjustment of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay.
Fluoridated water contains fluoride at a level that is effective for preventing cavities; this can occur naturally or by adding fluoride.
Fluoridated water operates on tooth surfaces: in the mouth, it creates low levels of fluoride in saliva, which reduces the rate at which tooth enamel demineralizes and increases the rate at which it remineralizes in the early stages of cavities.
Typically a fluoridated compound is added to drinking water, a process that in the U.S. costs an average of about $1.08 per person-year.
Defluoridation is needed when the naturally occurring fluoride level exceeds recommended limits.
In 2011 the World Health Organization suggested a level of fluoride from 0.5 to 1.5 mg/L (milligrams per litre), depending on climate, local environment, and other sources of fluoride.
Bottled water typically has unknown fluoride levels.

Tooth decay remains a major public health concern in most industrialized countries, affecting 60–90% of schoolchildren and the vast majority of adults.
Water fluoridation reduces cavities in children, while efficacy in adults is less clear.
A Cochrane review estimates a reduction in cavities when water fluoridation was used by children who had no access to other sources of fluoride to be 35% in baby teeth and 26% in permanent teeth.
However this was based on older studies which failed to control for numerous variables, such as increasing sugar consumption as well as other dental strategies.
Most European countries have experienced substantial declines in tooth decay, though milk and salt fluoridation is widespread in lieu of water fluoridation.
Recent studies suggest that water fluoridation, particularly in industrialized nations, may be unnecessary because topical fluorides (such as in toothpaste) are widely used, and caries rates have become low.

Although fluoridation can cause dental fluorosis, which can alter the appearance of developing teeth or enamel fluorosis, the differences are mild and usually not an aesthetic or public health concern.
There is no clear evidence of other adverse effects from water fluoridation.
Fluoride's effects depend on the total daily intake of fluoride from all sources.
Drinking water is typically the largest source;[14] other methods of fluoride therapy include fluoridation of toothpaste, salt, and milk.
The views on the most efficient method for community prevention of tooth decay are mixed.
The Australian government states that water fluoridation is the most effective way to achieve fluoride exposure that is community-wide.
The World Health Organization reports that water fluoridation, when feasible and culturally acceptable, has substantial advantages, especially for subgroups at high risk, while the European Commission finds no benefit to water fluoridation compared with topical use.

Public water fluoridation was first practiced in the U.S.
As of 2012, 25 countries have artificial water fluoridation to varying degrees, 11 of them have more than 50% of their population drinking fluoridated water.
A further 28 countries have water that is naturally fluoridated, though in many of them the fluoride is above the optimal level.
As of 2012, about 435 million people worldwide received water fluoridated at the recommended level (i.e., about 5.4% of the global population).
About 214 million of them living in the United States.
Major health organizations such as the World Health Organization and FDI World Dental Federation supported water fluoridation as safe and effective.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists water fluoridation as one of the ten great public health achievements of the 20th century in the U.S.
Despite this, the practice is controversial as a public health measure.
Some countries and communities have discontinued fluoridation, while others have expanded it.
Opponents of the practice argue that neither the benefits nor the risks have been studied adequately, and debate the conflict between what might be considered mass medication and individual liberties.

Contents
1 Goal
2 Implementation
2.1 Recommendations
2.2 Occurrences
3 Evidence
3.1 Effectiveness
3.2 Fluorosis
3.3 Safety
4 Mechanism
5 Alternatives
6 Worldwide prevalence
7 History
8 Economics
9 Controversy

For more information, see Water fluoridation .
Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation From Wikipedia:
Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) is a disinfection method that uses short-wavelength ultraviolet (UV-C) light to kill or inactivate microorganisms by destroying nucleic acids and disrupting their DNA, leaving them unable to perform vital cellular functions.
UVGI is used in a variety of applications, such as food, air, and water purification.

UV-C light is weak at the Earth's surface as the ozone layer of the atmosphere blocks it.
UVGI devices can produce strong enough UV-C light in circulating air or water systems to make them inhospitable environments to microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, molds and other pathogens.
UVGI can be coupled with a filtration system to sanitize air and water.

The application of UVGI to disinfection has been an accepted practice since the mid-20th century.
It has been used primarily in medical sanitation and sterile work facilities.
Increasingly it has been employed to sterilize drinking and wastewater, as the holding facilities are enclosed and can be circulated to ensure a higher exposure to the UV.
In recent years UVGI has found renewed application in air purifiers.

Contents
1 History
2 Method of operation
3 Effectiveness
3.1 Inactivation of microorganisms
4 Strengths and weaknesses
4.1 Advantages
4.2 Disadvantages
5 Safety
6 Uses
6.1 Air disinfection
6.2 Water disinfection
6.2.1 Developing countries
6.3 Wastewater treatment
6.4 Aquarium and pond
6.5 Laboratory hygiene
6.6 Food and beverage protection
7 Technology
7.1 Lamps
7.2 Light emitting diodes (LEDs)
7.3 Water treatment systems

For more information, see Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation .
Industrial water treatment From Wikipedia:
There are many uses of water in industry and, in most cases, the used water also needs treatment to render it fit for re-use or disposal.
Raw water entering an industrial plant often needs treatment to meet tight quality specifications to be of use in specific industrial processes.
Industrial water treatment encompasses all these aspects which include industrial wastewater treatment, boiler water treatment and cooling water treatment.

Contents
1 Overview
2 Objectives
3 Disposal of residual industrial wastewaters
4 Technologies
4.1 Ultraviolet irradiation
4.2 Process Water Treatment Technology

For more information, see Industrial water treatment .
Desalination From Wikipedia:
Desalination is a process that takes away mineral components from saline water.
More generally, desalination refers to the removal of salts and minerals from a target substance, as in soil desalination, which is an issue for agriculture.

Saltwater is desalinated to produce water suitable for human consumption or irrigation.
One by-product of desalination is salt.
Desalination is used on many seagoing ships and submarines.
Most of the modern interest in desalination is focused on cost-effective provision of fresh water for human use.
Along with recycled wastewater, it is one of the few rainfall-independent water sources.

Due to its energy consumption, desalinating sea water is generally more costly than fresh water from rivers or groundwater, water recycling and water conservation.
However, these alternatives are not always available and depletion of reserves is a critical problem worldwide.
Desalination processes are usually driven by either thermal (in the case of distillation) or electrical (e.g., photovoltaic or wind power) as the primary energy types.

Currently, approximately 1% of the world's population is dependent on desalinated water to meet daily needs, but the UN expects that 14% of the world's population will encounter water scarcity by 2025.
Desalination is particularly relevant in dry countries such as Australia, which traditionally have relied on collecting rainfall behind dams for water.

According to the International Desalination Association, in June 2015, there were 18,426 desalination plants operated worldwide, producing 86.8 million cubic meters per day, and providing water for 300 million people.
This number increased from 78.4 million cubic meters in 2013,[6] a 10.7% increase in 2 years.
The single largest desalination project is Ras Al-Khair in Saudi Arabia, which produced 1,025,000 cubic meters per day in 2014.
Kuwait produces a higher proportion of its water than any other country, totaling 100% of its water use.

Contents
1 Methods
1.1 Solar distillation
1.2 Vacuum distillation
1.3 Multi-stage flash distillation
1.4 Multiple-effect distillation
1.5 Vapor-compression distillation
1.6 Reverse osmosis
1.7 Freeze-thaw
1.8 Electrodialysis membrane
1.9 Membrane distillation
1.10 Wave-powered desalination
2 Considerations and criticism
2.1 Energy consumption
2.2 Cogeneration
2.3 Economics
2.4 Environmental
2.5 Other issues
3 Public opinion
4 Experimental techniques
4.1 Waste heat
4.2 Low-temperature thermal
4.3 Thermoionic process
4.4 Evaporation and condensation for crops
4.5 Other approaches
5 Facilities
6 In nature
7 History

For more information, see Desalination .
Water softening From Wikipedia:
Water softening is the removal of calcium, magnesium, and certain other metal cations in hard water.
The resulting soft water requires less soap for the same cleaning effort, as soap is not wasted bonding with calcium ions.
Soft water also extends the lifetime of plumbing by reducing or eliminating scale build-up in pipes and fittings.
Water softening is usually achieved using lime softening or ion-exchange resins but is increasingly being accomplished using nanofiltration or reverse osmosis membranes.

Contents
1 Rationale
2 Methods
2.1 Ion-exchange resin method
2.2 Lime softening
2.3 Chelating agents
2.4 Distillation and rain water
2.5 Reverse osmosis
3 Non-chemical devices
4 Health effects
5 Environmental impact

For more information, see Water softening .
Portable water purification From Wikipedia:
Portable water purification devices are self-contained, easily transported units used to purify water from untreated sources (such as rivers, lakes, and wells) for drinking purposes.
Their main function is to eliminate pathogens, and often also of suspended solids and some unpalatable or toxic compounds.

These units provide an autonomous supply of drinking water to people without access to clean water supply services, including inhabitants of developing countries and disaster areas, military personnel, campers, hikers, and workers in wilderness, and survivalists.
They are also called point-of-use (POU) water treatment systems and field water disinfection techniques.

Techniques include heat (including boiling), filtration, activated charcoal adsorption, chemical disinfection (e.g. chlorination, iodine, ozonation, etc.), ultraviolet purification (including sodis), distillation (including solar distillation), and flocculation.
Often these are used in combination.

Contents
1 Drinking water hazards
2 Techniques
2.1 Heat (boiling)
2.2 Filtration
2.3 Activated charcoal adsorption
2.4 Chemical disinfection with halogens
2.4.1 Iodine
2.4.2 Iodine crystals
2.4.3 Halazone tablets
2.4.4 Bleach
2.4.5 Chlorine dioxide
2.4.6 Mixed oxidant (MiOx)
2.4.7 Chlorine tablets (NaDCC)
2.5 Other chemical disinfection additives
2.5.1 Silver ion tablets
2.5.2 Hydrogen peroxide
2.6 Ultraviolet purification
2.7 Ozone water disinfection
2.8 Solar water disinfection
2.9 Solar distillation
2.10 Homemade water filters
3 Prevention of water contamination

For more information, see Portable water purification .

Oil refinery From Wikipedia:
An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is transformed and refined into more useful products such as petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas, jet fuel and fuel oils.
Petrochemicals feed stock like ethylene and propylene can also be produced directly by cracking crude oil without the need of using refined products of crude oil such as naphtha.

Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling industrial complexes with extensive piping running throughout, carrying streams of fluids between large chemical processing units, such as distillation columns.
In many ways, oil refineries use much of the technology, and can be thought of, as types of chemical plants.

The crude oil feedstock has typically been processed by an oil production plant.
There is usually an oil depot at or near an oil refinery for the storage of incoming crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products.

Petroleum refineries are very large industrial complexes that involve many different processing units and auxiliary facilities such as utility units and storage tanks.
Each refinery has its own unique arrangement and combination of refining processes largely determined by the refinery location, desired products and economic considerations.

An oil refinery is considered an essential part of the downstream side of the petroleum industry.

Some modern petroleum refineries process as much as 800,000 to 900,000 barrels (127,000 to 143,000 cubic meters) of crude oil per day.

According to the Oil and Gas Journal in the world a total of 636 refineries were operated on the 31 December 2014 for a total capacity of 87.75 million barrels (13,951,000 m3).

Jamnagar Refinery is the largest oil refinery, since 25 December 2008, with a processing capacity of 1.24 million barrels (197,000 m3).
Located in Gujarat, India, it is owned by Reliance Industries.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Oil refining in the United States
2 Operation
3 Major products
4 Chemical processes found in a refinery
5 Flow diagram of typical refinery
6 The crude oil distillation unit
7 Location of petroleum refineries
8 Safety and environment
9 Worker health
9.1 Background
9.2 Chemical exposures
9.2.1 Potential Chemical Exposure by Process
9.3 Physical hazards
9.4 Hazard controls
9.5 Regulations
10 Corrosion

For more information, see Oil refinery .
Petroleum refining processes From Wikipedia:
Petroleum refining processes are the chemical engineering processes and other facilities used in petroleum refineries (also referred to as oil refineries) to transform crude oil into useful products such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil and fuel oils.

Petroleum refineries are very large industrial complexes that involve many different processing units and auxiliary facilities such as utility units and storage tanks.
Each refinery has its own unique arrangement and combination of refining processes largely determined by the refinery location, desired products and economic considerations.

Some modern petroleum refineries process as much as 800,000 to 900,000 barrels (127,000 to 143,000 cubic meters) per day of crude oil.

Contents
1 History
2 Processing units used in refineries
3 Auxiliary facilities required in refineries
4 The crude oil distillation unit
5 Flow diagram of a typical petroleum refinery
6 Refining end-products
6.1 Light distillates
6.2 Middle distillates
6.3 Heavy distillates
6.4 Others

For more information, see Petroleum refining processes .
Natural-gas processing From Wikipedia:
Natural-gas processing is a complex industrial process designed to clean raw natural gas by separating impurities and various non-methane hydrocarbons and fluids to produce what is known as pipeline quality dry natural gas.

Natural-gas processing begins at the well head.
The composition of the raw natural gas extracted from producing wells depends on the type, depth, and location of the underground deposit and the geology of the area.
Oil and natural gas are often found together in the same reservoir.
The natural gas produced from oil wells is generally classified as associated-dissolved, meaning that the natural gas is associated with or dissolved in crude oil.
Natural gas production absent any association with crude oil is classified as “non-associated.”
In 2009, 89 percent of U.S. wellhead production of natural gas was non-associated.

Natural-gas processing plants purify raw natural gas by removing common contaminants such as water, carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
Some of the substances which contaminate natural gas have economic value and are further processed or sold.
A fully operational plant delivers pipeline-quality dry natural gas that can be used as fuel by residential, commercial and industrial consumers.

Contents
1 Types of raw-natural-gas wells
2 Contaminants in raw natural gas
3 Description of a natural-gas processing plant
3.1 Helium recovery
4 Consumption
5 Applications of natural gas

For more information, see Natural-gas processing .
Pipeline transport - oil and natural gas From Wikipedia:
It is uncertain when the first crude oil pipeline was built.
Credit for the development of pipeline transport is disputed, with competing claims for Vladimir Shukhov and the Branobel company in the late 19th century, and the Oil Transport Association, which first constructed a 2-inch (51 mm) wrought iron pipeline over a 6-mile (9.7 km) track from an oil field in Pennsylvania to a railroad station in Oil Creek, in the 1860s.
Pipelines are generally the most economical way to transport large quantities of oil, refined oil products or natural gas over land.
For example, in 2014, pipeline transport of crude oil cost about $5 per barrel, while rail transport cost about $10 to $15 per barrel.
Trucking has even higher costs due to the additional labor required; employment on completed pipelines represents only "1% of that of the trucking industry."

For more information, see Pipeline transport - oil and natural gas .
Electrical grid For more information, see Electrical grid .
From Wikipedia:
An electrical grid, electric grid or power grid, is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from producers to consumers.
It consists of:

- generating stations that produce electric power
- electrical substations for stepping electrical voltage up for transmission, or down for distribution
- high voltage transmission lines that carry power from distant sources to demand-centers
- distribution lines that connect individual customers

Power stations may be located (for example) near a fuel source or at a dam site (to take advantage of renewable energy sources), and are often located away from heavily-populated areas.
The electric power which is generated is stepped up to a higher voltage at which it connects to the electric power transmission net.

The bulk-power transmission network will move the power long distances, sometimes across international boundaries, until it reaches its wholesale customer (usually the organisation that owns the local electric power distribution network).

On arrival at a substation, the power will be stepped down from a transmission level voltage to a distribution-level voltage.
As it exits the substation, it enters the distribution wiring.
Finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage(s).

Electrical grids vary in size from covering a single building through national grids (which cover whole countries) to transnational grids (which can cross continents).

Although electrical grids are widespread, as of 2016 1.4 billion people were not connected to an electricity grid.

Electrical grids can be prone to malicious intrusion or attack; thus, there is a need for electric grid security.
Also as electric grids modernize and introduce computers, cyber threats also start to become a security risk.
Particular concerns relate to the more complex computer systems needed to manage grids with a large proportion of intermittent renewable-energy sources in the electricity mix.

Contents
1 History
2 Features
2.1 Voltage
2.2 Topologies
2.3 Synchronous grid
2.4 Frequency
2.5 Demand
2.6 Production
2.7 Grid code
2.8 Transmission losses
2.9 Capacity and firm capacity
2.10 Interconnectors
3 Failure
3.1 Brownout
3.2 Blackout
3.3 Load shedding
3.4 Black start
4 Size
4.1 Wide area synchronous grid
4.2 Microgrid
4.3 Super grids
5 Trends
5.1 Demand response
5.2 Aging infrastructure
5.3 Modernization
5.4 Distributed generation
5.5 Smart grid
5.6 Grid defection
6 Utilities and oligopoly

For more information, see Electrical grid .

For more information, see
Secondary sector of the economy .

From Wikipedia:
Manufacturing

Manufacturing is the production of products for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation, and is the essence of secondary industry.
The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial design, in which raw materials from primary industry are transformed into finished goods on a large scale.
Such finished goods may be sold to other manufacturers for the production of other more complex products (such as aircraft, household appliances, furniture, sports equipment or automobiles), or distributed via the tertiary industry to end users and consumers (usually through wholesalers, who in turn sell to retailers, who then sell them to individual customers).

Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product.
The manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made.
These materials are then modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part.

Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required in the production and integration of a product's components.
Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead.

The manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design.
Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, and Precision Castparts.
Examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, FCA and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Toyota, Yamaha, Panasonic, LG, Samsung and Tata Motors.

Contents
1 History and development
1.1 Manufacturing systems: methods of manufacturing
2 Industrial policy
2.1 Economics of manufacturing
2.2 Safety
2.3 Manufacturing and investment
3 List of countries by manufacturing output
4 Manufacturing processes
5 Control

For more information, see
Manufacturing .

For more information, see
Manufacturing .

From Wikipedia:

Tertiary sector of the economy

The service sector is the third of the three economic sectors of the three-sector theory.
The others are the secondary sector (approximately the same as manufacturing), and the primary sector (raw materials).

The service sector consists of the production of services instead of end products.
Services (also known as "intangible goods") include attention, advice, access, experience, and affective labor.
The production of information has long been regarded as a service, but some economists now attribute it to a fourth sector, the quaternary sector.

The tertiary sector of industry involves the provision of services to other businesses as well as final consumers.
Services may involve the transport, distribution and sale of goods from producer to a consumer, as may happen in wholesaling and retailing, pest control or entertainment.
The goods may be transformed in the process of providing the service, as happens in the restaurant industry.
However, the focus is on people interacting with people and serving the customer rather than transforming physical goods.

Contents
1 Difficulty of definition
2 Theory of progression
3 Issues for service providers
4 Examples of tertiary sector industries
5 List of countries by tertiary output

Consulting From Wikipedia:
A consultant (from Latin: consultare "to deliberate") is a professional who provides expert advice in a particular area such as security (electronic or physical), management, education, accountancy, law, regulatory compliance, human resources, marketing (and public relations), finance, health care, engineering, science or any of many other specialized fields.
...
Contents
1 Ways of work
2 Common types
3 Places of work
4 Qualifications
5 Types
...
Types:

- Archaeological consultant
- Biotechnology consultant
- Cloud consultant
- Consultant (medicine)
- Consultant pharmacist
- Creative consultant
- Consulting psychology
- Design consultant
- Diversity consultant
- Digital consultant
- Educational consultant
- Elevator consultant
- Employment consultant
- Environmental consultant
- Faculty consultant
- Financial consultant
- Franchise consultant
- Foreclosure consultant
- Heritage consultant
- Hospitality consultant
- Human resources consultant
- Image consultant
- Immigration consultant
- Independent contractor
- Information consultant
- Interim managers
- Information technology consultant
- Lactation consultant
- Legal nurse consultant
- Loss control consultant
- Lighting consultant
- Magic consultant
- Management consultant
- Market entry consultant
- Media consultant
- Medical practice consultant
- Museum consultant
- Performance consultant
- Political consultant
- Process consultant
- Professional engineering consultant
- Public relations consultant
- Sales consultant
- Statistical consultant
- Supply-chain consultant
- Theatre consultant
- Trial consultant

For more information, see Consulting .
Education From Wikipedia:
Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits.
Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research.
Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, however learners may also educate themselves.
Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.

Formal education is commonly divided formally into such stages as preschool or kindergarten, primary school, secondary school and then college, university, or apprenticeship.

A right to education has been recognized by some governments and the United Nations.
In most regions, education is compulsory up to a certain age.
There is a movement for education reform, and in particular for the of evidence-based education.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Formal education
3.1 Preschool
3.2 Primary
3.3 Secondary
3.4 Tertiary (higher)
3.5 Vocational
3.6 Special
4 Other educational forms
4.1 Alternative
4.2 Indigenous
4.3 Informal learning
4.4 Self-directed learning
4.5 Evidence-based education
4.6 Open education and electronic technology
5 Education sector
6 Development goals
6.1 Internationalization
6.2 Education and technology in developing countries
6.3 Private vs public funding in developing countries
7 Educational theory
7.1 Educational psychology
7.2 The intelligence–education relationship
7.3 Learning modalities
7.4 Mind, brain, and education
7.5 Philosophy
7.6 Purpose of education
7.7 Curriculum
7.8 Instruction
8 Economics of education
9 The future of education

For more information, see Education .
Financial services From Wikipedia:
Financial services are the economic services provided by the finance industry, which encompasses a broad range of businesses that manage money, including credit unions, banks, credit-card companies, insurance companies, accountancy companies, consumer-finance companies, stock brokerages, investment funds, individual managers and some government-sponsored enterprises.
Financial services companies are present in all economically developed geographic locations and tend to cluster in local, national, regional and international financial centers such as London, New York City, and Tokyo.

Contents
1 History
2 Banks
2.1 Commercial banking services
2.2 Investment banking services
3 Foreign exchange services
4 Investment services
5 Insurance
6 Other financial services
7 Financial exports

For more information, see Financial services .
Foodservice From Wikipedia:
Food service (US English) or catering industry (British English) defines those businesses, institutions, and companies responsible for any meal prepared outside the home.
This industry includes restaurants, school and hospital cafeterias, catering operations, and many other formats.

The companies that supply foodservice operators are called foodservice distributors.
Foodservice distributors sell goods like small wares (kitchen utensils) and foods.
Some companies manufacture products in both consumer and foodservice versions.
The consumer version usually comes in individual-sized packages with elaborate label design for retail sale.
The foodservice version is packaged in a much larger industrial size and often lacks the colorful label designs of the consumer version.

Contents
1 Statistics
2 Health concerns
3 Types of service
4 Gueridon service

For more information, see Foodservice .
Franchising From Wikipedia:
Franchising is based on a marketing concept which can be adopted by an organization as a strategy for business expansion.
Where implemented, a franchisor licenses its know-how, procedures, intellectual property, use of its business model, brand, and rights to sell its branded products and services to a franchisee.
In return the franchisee pays certain fees and agrees to comply with certain obligations, typically set out in a Franchise Agreement.

The word "franchise" is of Anglo-French derivation—from franc, meaning free—and is used both as a noun and as a (transitive) verb.
For the franchisor, use of a franchise system is an alternative business growth strategy, compared to expansion through corporate owned outlets or "chain stores".
Adopting a franchise system business growth strategy for the sale and distribution of goods and services minimizes the franchisor's capital investment and liability risk.

Franchising is not an equal partnership, especially due to the preponderance of the franchisor over the franchisee.
But under specific circumstances like transparency, favourable legal conditions, financial means and proper market research, franchising can be a vehicle of success for both franchisor and franchisee.

Thirty-six countries have laws that explicitly regulate franchising, with the majority of all other countries having laws which have a direct or indirect effect on franchising.
Franchising is also used as a foreign market entry mode.

Contents
1 History
2 Largest franchised chains
3 Fees and contract arrangement
4 Rationale and risk shift
5 Advantages and disadvantages of franchising as an entry mode
6 Obligations of the parties
7 Regulations
7.1 Australia
7.1.1 Franchising code of conduct
7.2 New Zealand
7.3 Brazil
7.4 Canada
7.5 China
7.6 India
7.7 Kazakhstan
7.8 Europe
7.8.1 France
7.8.2 Italy
7.8.3 Norway
7.8.4 Russia
7.8.5 Spain
7.8.6 Turkey
7.8.7 United Kingdom
7.9 United States
8 Social franchises
9 Third-party logistics franchising
10 Event franchising
11 Home-based franchises

For more information, see Franchising .
Gambling From Wikipedia:
Gambling is the wagering of money or something of value (referred to as "the stakes") on an event with an uncertain outcome, with the primary intent of winning money or material goods.
Gambling thus requires three elements to be present: consideration (an amount wagered), risk (chance), and a prize.
The outcome of the wager is often immediate, such as a single roll of dice, a spin of a roulette wheel, or a horse crossing the finish line, but longer time frames are also common, allowing wagers on the outcome of a future sports contest or even an entire sports season.

The term "gaming" in this context typically refers to instances in which the activity has been specifically permitted by law.
The two words are not mutually exclusive; i.e., a "gaming" company offers (legal) "gambling" activities to the public and may be regulated by one of many gaming control boards, for example, the Nevada Gaming Control Board.
However, this distinction is not universally observed in the English-speaking world.
For instance, in the United Kingdom, the regulator of gambling activities is called the Gambling Commission (not the Gaming Commission).
The word gaming is used more frequently since the rise of computer and video games to describe activities that do not necessarily involve wagering, especially online gaming, with the new usage still not having displaced the old usage as the primary definition in common dictionaries.
"Gaming" has also been used to circumvent laws against "gambling".

Gambling is also a major international commercial activity, with the legal gambling market totaling an estimated $335 billion in 2009.
In other forms, gambling can be conducted with materials which have a value, but are not real money.
For example, players of marbles games might wager marbles, and likewise games of Pogs or Magic: The Gathering can be played with the collectible game pieces (respectively, small discs and trading cards) as stakes, resulting in a meta-game regarding the value of a player's collection of pieces.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Great Britain
1.2 United States
2 Regulation
2.1 Insurance
2.2 Asset recovery
3 Religious views
3.1 Hinduism
3.2 Judaism
3.3 Christianity
3.4 Islam
4 Types
4.1 Casino games
4.1.1 Table games
4.1.2 Electronic gaming
4.1.3 Other gambling
4.2 Non-casino games
4.3 Fixed-odds betting
4.3.1 Parimutuel betting
4.3.2 Sports betting
4.4 Virtual sports
4.5 Arbitrage betting
4.6 Other types of betting
5 Staking systems
6 Other uses of the term
7 Negative consequences
8 Psychological biases

For more information, see Gambling .
Health care From Wikipedia:
Health care, health-care, or healthcare is the maintenance or improvement of health via the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people.
Health care is delivered by health professionals in allied health fields.
Physicians and physician associates are a part of these health professionals.
Dentistry, midwifery, nursing, medicine, optometry, audiology, pharmacy, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy and other health professions are all part of health care.
It includes work done in providing primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health.

Access to health care may vary across countries, communities, and individuals, largely influenced by social and economic conditions as well as health policies.
Providing health care services means "the timely use of personal health services to achieve the best possible health outcomes".
Factors to consider in terms of healthcare access include financial limitations (such as insurance coverage), geographic barriers (such as additional transportation costs, possibility to take paid time off of work to use such services), and personal limitations (lack of ability to communicate with healthcare providers, poor health literacy, low income).
Limitations to health care services affects negatively the use of medical services, efficacy of treatments, and overall outcome (well-being, mortality rates).

Health care systems are organizations established to meet the health needs of targeted populations.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a well-functioning health care system requires a financing mechanism, a well-trained and adequately paid workforce, reliable information on which to base decisions and policies, and well maintained health facilities to deliver quality medicines and technologies.

An efficient health care system can contribute to a significant part of a country's economy, development and industrialization.
Health care is conventionally regarded as an important determinant in promoting the general physical and mental health and well-being of people around the world.
An example of this was the worldwide eradication of smallpox in 1980, declared by the WHO as the first disease in human history to be completely eliminated by deliberate health care interventions.

Contents
1 Delivery
1.1 Primary care
1.2 Secondary care
1.3 Tertiary care
1.4 Quaternary care
1.5 Home and community care
1.6 Ratings
2 Related sectors
2.1 Health system
2.2 Health care industry
2.3 Health care research
2.4 Health care financing
2.5 Administration and regulation
2.6 Health information technology

For more information, see Health care .
Hospitality industry/tourism From Wikipedia:
Tourism is travel for pleasure or business; also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours.
The World Tourism Organization defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as being limited to holiday activity only", as people "traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure and not less than 24 hours, business and other purposes".

Tourism can be domestic (within the traveller's own country) or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a country's balance of payments.

Tourism numbers declined as a result of a strong economic slowdown (the late-2000s recession) between the second half of 2008 and the end of 2009, and in consequence of the outbreak of the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus, but slowly recovered.
Globally, international tourism receipts (the travel item in balance of payments) grew to US$1.03 trillion (€740 billion) in 2005, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 3.8% from 2010.
International tourist arrivals surpassed the milestone of 1 billion tourists globally for the first time in 2012, emerging source markets such as China, Russia, and Brazil had significantly increased their spending over the previous decade.
The ITB Berlin is the world's leading tourism trade-fair.
Global tourism accounts for c. 8% of global greenhouse-gas emissions.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Significance of tourism
3 Definitions
4 World tourism statistics and rankings
4.1 Total volume of cross-border tourist travel
4.2 World's top tourism destinations
4.3 International tourism receipts
4.4 International tourism expenditure
4.5 Euromonitor International Top City Destinations Ranking
4.6 World Travel and Tourism Council
5 History
5.1 Antiquity
5.2 Middle Ages
5.3 Grand Tour
5.4 Emergence of leisure travel
6 Cruise shipping
7 Modern day tourism
7.1 Mass tourism
7.2 Niche tourism
7.3 Winter tourism
8 Recent developments
8.1 Sustainable tourism
8.2 Textile tourism
8.3 Ecotourism
8.4 Movie tourism
8.5 Dizionario del Turismo Cinematografico
8.6 Volunteer tourism
8.7 Pro-poor tourism
8.8 Recession tourism
8.9 Medical tourism
8.10 Educational tourism
8.11 Event tourism
8.12 Creative tourism
8.13 Experiential tourism
8.14 Dark tourism
8.15 Social tourism
8.16 Doom tourism
8.17 Religious tourism
8.18 DNA tourism
9 Problems that are sometimes associated with tourism
9.1 Tourism fatigue
9.2 Negative environmental consequences
9.3 Illegal activities
10 Growth
10.1 Space tourism
10.2 Sports tourism
10.3 Latest trends

For more information, see Hospitality industry/tourism .
Mass media From Wikipedia:
Mass media refers to a diverse array of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication.
The technologies through which this communication takes place include a variety of outlets.

Broadcast media transmit information electronically via media such as films, radio, recorded music, or television.
Digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication.
Internet media comprise such services as email, social media sites, websites, and Internet-based radio and television.
Many other mass media outlets have an additional presence on the web, by such means as linking to or running TV ads online, or distributing QR Codes in outdoor or print media to direct mobile users to a website.
In this way, they can utilise the easy accessibility and outreach capabilities the Internet affords, as thereby easily broadcast information throughout many different regions of the world simultaneously and cost-efficiently.
Outdoor media transmit information via such media as AR advertising; billboards; blimps; flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes); placards or kiosks placed inside and outside buses, commercial buildings, shops, sports stadiums, subway cars, or trains; signs; or skywriting.
Print media transmit information via physical objects, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, or pamphlets.
Event organizing and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media.

The organizations that control these technologies, such as movie studios, publishing companies, and radio and television stations, are also known as the mass media.

Contents
1 Issues with definition
1.1 Characteristics
1.2 Mass vs. mainstream and alternative
2 Forms of mass media
2.1 Broadcast
2.2 Film
2.3 Video games
2.4 Audio recording and reproduction
2.5 Internet
2.5.1 Blogs (web logs)
2.5.2 RSS feeds
2.5.3 Podcast
2.5.4 Mobile
2.6 Print media
2.6.1 Magazine
2.6.2 Newspaper
2.7 Outdoor media
3 Purposes
4 Professions involving mass media
4.1 Journalism
4.2 Public relations
4.3 Publishing
4.3.1 Software publishing
4.4 Internet Based Professions
5 History
5.1 Mergers and Acquisitions
6 Influence and sociology
6.1 Racism and stereotyping
6.1.1 Example
7 Ethical issues and criticism

For more information, see Mass media .
Pharmacy From Wikipedia:
Pharmacy is the science and technique of preparing, dispensing, and reviewing drugs and providing additional clinical services.
It is a health profession that links health sciences with pharmaceutical sciences and aims to ensure the safe, effective, and affordable use of drugs.
The professional practice is becoming more clinically oriented as most of the drugs are now manufactured by pharmaceutical industries.
Based on the setting, the pharmacy is classified as a community or institutional pharmacy.
Providing direct patient care in the community of institutional pharmacies are considered clinical pharmacy.

The scope of pharmacy practice includes more traditional roles such as compounding and dispensing of medications, and it also includes more modern services related to health care, including clinical services, reviewing medications for safety and efficacy, and providing drug information.
Pharmacists, therefore, are the experts on drug therapy and are the primary health professionals who optimize the use of medication for the benefit of the patients.

An establishment in which pharmacy (in the first sense) is practiced is called a pharmacy (this term is more common in the United States) or a chemist's (which is more common in Great Britain).
In the United States and Canada, drugstores commonly sell medicines, as well as miscellaneous items such as confectionery, cosmetics, office supplies, toys, hair care products and magazines and occasionally refreshments and groceries.

In its investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients, the work of the pharma may be regarded as a precursor of the modern sciences of chemistry and pharmacology, prior to the formulation of the scientific method.

Contents
1 Disciplines
2 Professionals
2.1 Pharmacists
2.2 Pharmacy technicians
3 Education requirements
4 History
5 Practice areas
5.1 Community pharmacy
5.2 Hospital pharmacy
5.3 Clinical pharmacy
5.4 Ambulatory care pharmacy
5.5 Compounding pharmacy
5.6 Consultant pharmacy
5.7 Internet pharmacy
5.8 Veterinary pharmacy
5.9 Nuclear pharmacy
5.10 Military pharmacy
5.11 Pharmacy informatics
5.12 Specialty pharmacy
6 Pharmaceutical sciences
7 Society and culture
7.1 Etymology
7.2 Separation of prescribing and dispensing
7.3 The future of pharmacy
8 Pharmacy journals
9 Symbols

For more information, see Pharmacy .
Public health From Wikipedia:
Public health has been defined as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting human health through organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals".
Analyzing the health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health.
The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents.
The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological and social well-being.
As such, according to the World Health Organization, it is not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Public health is an interdisciplinary field.
For example, epidemiology, biostatistics and management of health services are all relevant.
Other important subfields include environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, occupational safety, gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health.

Public health aims to improve the quality of life through prevention and treatment of disease, including mental health.
This is done through the surveillance of cases and health indicators, and through the promotion of healthy behaviors.
Common public health initiatives include promotion of handwashing and breastfeeding, delivery of vaccinations, suicide prevention, and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases.

Modern public health practice requires multidisciplinary teams of public health workers and professionals.
Teams might include epidemiologists, biostatisticians, medical assistants, public health nurses, midwives, medical microbiologists, economists, sociologists, geneticists, data managers, and physicians.
Depending on the need, environmental health officers or public health inspectors, bioethicists, and even veterinarians, gender experts, or sexual and reproductive health specialists might be called on.

Access to health care and public health initiatives are difficult challenges in developing countries.
Public health infrastructures are still forming in those countries.

Contents
1 Background
2 Current practice
2.1 Public health programs
2.2 Applications in health care
2.3 Implementing effective improvement strategies
2.4 Public Health 2.0
3 Developing countries
3.1 Health aid in developing countries
3.1.1 International health aid debates
3.2 Sustainable development goals 2030
3.3 U.S. initiatives
4 Education and training
4.1 Schools of public health: a US perspective
4.2 Degrees in public health
5 History
5.1 Early history
5.2 Modern public health
5.2.1 Public health legislation
5.2.2 Epidemiology
5.2.3 Disease control
5.3 Country examples
5.3.1 France
5.3.2 United States
5.3.3 Mexico
5.3.4 Cuba
5.3.5 Colombia and Bolivia
5.3.6 Ghana
5.3.7 India

For more information, see Public health .
Professional services From Wikipedia:
Professional services are occupations in the tertiary sector of the economy requiring special training in the arts or sciences.
Some professional services require holding professional licenses such as architects, accountants, engineers, doctors and lawyers.
Other professional services involve providing specialist business support to businesses of all sizes and in all sectors; this can include tax advice, supporting a company with accounting, IT services or providing management advice.

Contents
1 Definition
2 Example occupations
3 Provision
4 Marketing

For more information, see Professional services .
Real estate From Wikipedia:
Real estate is "property consisting of land and the buildings on it, along with its natural resources such as crops, minerals or water; immovable property of this nature; an interest vested in this (also) an item of real property, (more generally) buildings or housing in general.
Also: the business of real estate; the profession of buying, selling, or renting land, buildings, or housing."
It is a legal term used in jurisdictions whose legal system is derived from English common law, such as India, England, Wales, Northern Ireland, United States, Canada, Pakistan, Australia, and New Zealand.

Contents
1 Residential real estate
2 Sales and marketing

For more information, see Real estate .
Retail From Wikipedia:
Retail is the process of selling consumer goods or services to customers through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit.
Retailers satisfy demand identified through a supply chain.
The term "retailer" is typically applied where a service provider fills the small orders of a large number of individuals, who are end-users, rather than large orders of a small number of wholesale, corporate or government clientele.
Shopping generally refers to the act of buying products.
Sometimes this is done to obtain final goods, including necessities such as food and clothing; sometimes it takes place as a recreational activity.
Recreational shopping often involves window shopping and browsing: it does not always result in a purchase.

Retail markets and shops have a very ancient history, dating back to antiquity.
Some of the earliest retailers were itinerant peddlers.
Over the centuries, retail shops were transformed from little more than "rude booths" to the sophisticated shopping malls of the modern era.

Most modern retailers typically make a variety of strategic level decisions including the type of store, the market to be served, the optimal product assortment, customer service, supporting services and the store's overall market positioning.
Once the strategic retail plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel and presentation.
In the digital age, an increasing number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling through multiple channels, including both bricks and mortar and online retailing.
Digital technologies are also changing the way that consumers pay for goods and services.
Retailing support services may also include the provision of credit, delivery services, advisory services, stylist services and a range of other supporting services.

Retail shops occur in a diverse range of types and in many different contexts – from strip shopping centres in residential streets through to large, indoor shopping malls.
Shopping streets may restrict traffic to pedestrians only.
Sometimes a shopping street has a partial or full roof to create a more comfortable shopping environment – protecting customers from various types of weather conditions such as extreme temperatures, winds or precipitation.
Forms of non-shop retailing include online retailing (a type of electronic-commerce used for business-to-consumer (B2C) transactions) and mail order.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Definition and explanation
3 History
3.1 Retailing in antiquity
3.2 Retailing in Medieval Europe
3.3 Retailing in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries
3.4 Retailing in the modern era
4 Retail strategy
5 The retail marketing mix
5.1 Product
5.1.1 Product assortment
5.1.2 Customer service and supporting services
5.1.2.1 Types of customer service
5.2 Place
5.2.1 Location
5.2.1.1 Macro factors
5.2.1.2 Micro factors
5.2.2 Channels
5.3 Pricing strategy and tactics
5.3.1 Pricing tactics
5.4 Personnel and staffing
5.4.1 Selling and sales techniques
5.5 Promotion
5.6 Presentation
5.6.1 Designing retail spaces
6 Shopper profiles
7 Retail format: types of retail outlet
7.1 Retail type by product
7.2 Retail types by marketing strategy
7.3 Other retail types
8 Challenges
9 Global top ten retailers
10 Competition
10.1 Mergers and acquisitions
11 Statistics for national retail sales
11.1 United States
11.2 Central Europe
11.3 World
12 Consolidation
13 Gallery

For more information, see Retail .
Telecommunication From Wikipedia:
Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, words, writings, images and sounds or information of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems.
Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between communication participants includes the use of technology.
It is transmitted through a transmission media, such as over physical media, for example, over electrical cable, or via electromagnetic radiation through space such as radio or light.
Such transmission paths are often divided into communication channels which afford the advantages of multiplexing.
Since the Latin term communicatio is considered the social process of information exchange, the term telecommunications is often used in its plural form because it involves many different technologies.

Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags and optical heliographs.
Other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud whistles.
20th- and 21st-century technologies for long-distance communication usually involve electrical and electromagnetic technologies, such as telegraph, telephone, and teleprinter, networks, radio, microwave transmission, fiber optics, and communications satellites.

A revolution in wireless communication began in the first decade of the 20th century with the pioneering developments in radio communications by Guglielmo Marconi, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909, and other notable pioneering inventors and developers in the field of electrical and electronic telecommunications.
These included Charles Wheatstone and Samuel Morse (inventors of the telegraph), Alexander Graham Bell (inventor of the telephone), Edwin Armstrong and Lee de Forest (inventors of radio), as well as Vladimir K. Zworykin, John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth (some of the inventors of television).

Contents 1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Beacons and pigeons
2.2 Telegraph and telephone
2.3 Radio and television
2.4 Transistors
2.5 Computers and the Internet
2.6 Wireless telecommunication
2.7 Digital cinema
3 Key concepts
3.1 Basic elements
3.2 Analog versus digital communications
3.3 Telecommunication networks
3.4 Communication channels
3.5 Modulation
4 Society
4.1 Economic impact
4.1.1 Microeconomics
4.1.2 Macroeconomics
4.2 Social impact
4.3 Other impacts
5 Government
6 Modern media
6.1 Worldwide equipment sales
6.2 Telephone
6.3 Radio and television
6.4 Internet
6.5 Local area networks and wide area networks
7 Transmission capacity

For more information, see Telecommunication .
Transport From Wikipedia:
Transport or transportation is the movement of humans, animals and goods from one location to another.
In other words, the action of transport is defined as a particular movement of an organism or thing from a point A to a Point B.
Modes of transport include air, land (rail and road), water, cable, pipeline and space.
The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations.
Transport enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations.

Transport infrastructure consists of the fixed installations, including roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, warehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations) and seaports.
Terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance.

Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, helicopters, watercraft, spacecraft and aircraft.

Operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose, including financing, legalities, and policies.
In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the country and mode.

Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, or private.
Freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items.
Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution and use large amounts of land.
While it is heavily subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow and restrain urban sprawl.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Mechanical
2 Mode
2.1 Human-powered
2.2 Animal-powered
2.3 Air
2.4 Land
2.4.1 Rail
2.4.2 Road
2.5 Water
2.6 Other modes
3 Elements
3.1 Infrastructure
3.2 Vehicles
3.3 Operation
3.4 Policy
4 Functions
4.1 Passenger
4.2 Medical transport
4.3 Freight
5 Impact
5.1 Economic
5.2 Planning
5.3 Environment

For more information, see Transport .
Waste management From Wikipedia:
Waste management (or waste disposal) are the activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal.
This includes the collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste management process.

Waste can be solid, liquid, or gas and each type has different methods of disposal and management.
Waste management deals with all types of waste, including industrial, biological and household.
In some cases, waste can pose a threat to human health.
Waste is produced by human activity, for example, the extraction and processing of raw materials.
Waste management is intended to reduce adverse effects of waste on human health, the environment or aesthetics.

Waste management practices are not uniform among countries (developed and developing nations); regions (urban and rural areas), and residential and industrial sectors can all take different approaches.

A large portion of waste management practices deal with municipal solid waste (MSW) which is the bulk of the waste that is created by household, industrial, and commercial activity.

Contents
1 Principles of waste management
1.1 Waste hierarchy
1.2 Life-cycle of a product
1.3 Resource efficiency
1.4 Polluter-pays principle
2 History
2.1 Modern era
3 Waste handling and transport
3.1 Waste handling practices
4 Financial models
5 Disposal methods
5.1 Landfill
5.2 Incineration
6 Recycling
7 Re-use
7.1 Biological reprocessing
7.2 Energy recovery
7.3 Pyrolysis
7.4 Resource recovery
7.5 Sustainability
8 Liquid waste-management
8.1 Sewage sludge
9 Avoidance and reduction methods
10 International waste movement
11 Challenges in developing countries
12 Technologies
13 Scientific journals

For more information, see Waste management .

For more information, see
Tertiary sector of the economy .

From Wikipedia:
The quaternary sector of any city is a way to describe a knowledge-based part of the economy, which typically includes knowledge-oriented economic sectors such as information technology, media, research and development; information-based services such as information-generation and information-sharing; and knowledge-based services such as consultation, education, financial planning, blogging, and designing.

The quaternary sector is based on pure knowledge and skill of a person.
This skill can help people get into more advanced jobs than just any normal jobs like mopping the floors.
It consists of intellectual industries providing information services, such as computing and ICT (information and communication technologies), consultancy (offering advice to businesses) and R&D (research, particularly in scientific fields).
According to some definitions, the Quaternary sector includes other pure services, such as the entertainment industry, and the term has been used[by whom?] to describe media, culture, and government.
...
Between them, the tertiary and quaternary sectors form the largest part of the UK economy, employing 76% of the workforce.
The number of people who earn their living in these activities is increasing.
Companies invest in the Quaternary sector to promote further expansion.
It is seen as a way to generate higher margins or returns on investment.
Research will be directed into cutting costs, tapping into markets, producing innovative ideas, new production methods and methods of manufacture, among others.
To many industries, such as the pharmaceutical industry, the sector is the most valuable because it creates future secondary-sector branded products from which companies may profit.

Computing From Wikipedia:
Computing is any activity that uses computers to manage, process, and communicate information.
It includes development of both hardware and software.
Computing is a critical, integral component of modern industrial technology.
Major computing disciplines include computer engineering, software engineering, computer science, information systems, and information technology.

Contents
1 Definitions
2 History
3 Computer
3.1 Computer software and hardware
3.1.1 Application software
3.1.2 System software
3.2 Computer network
3.2.1 Internet
3.3 Computer programming
3.3.1 Computer programmer
3.4 Computer industry
3.4.1 Software industry
4 Sub-disciplines of computing
4.1 Computer engineering
4.2 Software engineering
4.3 Computer science
4.4 Information systems
4.4.1 Computer Information System(s) (CIS)
4.5 Information technology
4.5.1 Systems administration
5 Research and emerging technologies

For more information, see Computing .
Information and communications technology From Wikipedia:
Information and communications technology (ICT) is an extensional term for information technology (IT) that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals) and computers, as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audiovisual systems, that enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information.

The term ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audiovisual and telephone networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system.
There are large economic incentives to merge the telephone network with the computer network system using a single unified system of cabling, signal distribution, and management.
ICT is an umbrella term that includes any communication device, encompassing radio, television, cell phones, computer and network hardware, satellite systems and so on, as well as the various services and appliance with them such as video conferencing and distance learning.

ICT is a broad subject and the concepts are evolving.
It covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit, or receive information electronically in a digital form (e.g., personal computers, digital television, email, or robots).
For clarity, Zuppo provided an ICT hierarchy where all levels of the hierarchy "contain some degree of commonality in that they are related to technologies that facilitate the transfer of information and various types of electronically mediated communications".
Theoretical differences between interpersonal-communication technologies and mass-communication technologies have been identified by the philosopher Piyush Mathur.
Skills Framework for the Information Age is one of many models for describing and managing competencies for ICT professionals for the 21st century.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Monetization
3 Technological capacity
4 ICT sector in the OECD
5 ICT Development Index
6 The WSIS process and ICT development goals
7 In education
7.1 Developing countries
7.1.1 Africa
8 Models of Access to ICT
8.1 Devices
8.2 Conduits
8.3 Literacy

For more information, see Information and communications technology .
Information technology From Wikipedia:
Information technology (IT) is the use of computers to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data,[1] or information, often in the context of a business or other enterprise.
IT is considered to be a subset of information and communications technology (ICT).
An information technology system (IT system) is generally an information system, a communications system or, more specifically speaking, a computer system – including all hardware, software and peripheral equipment – operated by a limited group of users.

Humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating, and communicating information since the Sumerians in Mesopotamia developed writing in about 3000 BC, but the term information technology in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review; authors Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that
"the new technology does not yet have a single established name.
We shall call it information technology (IT)."
Their definition consists of three categories: techniques for processing, the application of statistical and mathematical methods to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-order thinking through computer programs.

The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones.
Several products or services within an economy are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, and e-commerce.

Based on the storage and processing technologies employed, it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases of IT development: pre-mechanical (3000 BC – 1450 AD), mechanical (1450–1840), electromechanical (1840–1940), and electronic (1940–present).
This article focuses on the most recent period (electronic).

Contents
1 History of computer technology
2 Electronic data processing
2.1 Data storage
2.1.1 Databases
2.2 Data retrieval
2.3 Data transmission
2.4 Data manipulation
3 Perspectives
3.1 Academic perspective
3.2 Commercial and employment perspective
3.3 Ethical perspectives

For more information, see Information technology .
Mass media From Wikipedia:
Mass media refers to a diverse array of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication.
The technologies through which this communication takes place include a variety of outlets.

Broadcast media transmit information electronically via media such as films, radio, recorded music, or television.
Digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication.
Internet media comprise such services as email, social media sites, websites, and Internet-based radio and television.
Many other mass media outlets have an additional presence on the web, by such means as linking to or running TV ads online, or distributing QR Codes in outdoor or print media to direct mobile users to a website.
In this way, they can utilise the easy accessibility and outreach capabilities the Internet affords, as thereby easily broadcast information throughout many different regions of the world simultaneously and cost-efficiently.
Outdoor media transmit information via such media as AR advertising; billboards; blimps; flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes); placards or kiosks placed inside and outside buses, commercial buildings, shops, sports stadiums, subway cars, or trains; signs; or skywriting.
Print media transmit information via physical objects, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, or pamphlets.
Event organizing and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media.

The organizations that control these technologies, such as movie studios, publishing companies, and radio and television stations, are also known as the mass media.

Contents
1 Issues with definition
1.1 Characteristics
1.2 Mass vs. mainstream and alternative
2 Forms of mass media
2.1 Broadcast
2.2 Film
2.3 Video games
2.4 Audio recording and reproduction
2.5 Internet
2.5.1 Blogs (web logs)
2.5.2 RSS feeds
2.5.3 Podcast
2.5.4 Mobile
2.6 Print media
2.6.1 Magazine
2.6.2 Newspaper
2.7 Outdoor media
3 Purposes
4 Professions involving mass media
4.1 Journalism
4.2 Public relations
4.3 Publishing
4.3.1 Software publishing
4.4 Internet Based Professions
5 History
5.1 Mergers and Acquisitions
6 Influence and sociology
6.1 Racism and stereotyping
6.1.1 Example
7 Ethical issues and criticism

For more information, see Mass media .
Research and development From Wikipedia:
Research and development (R&D, R+D, or R'n'D), known in Europe as research and technological development (RTD), refers to innovative activities undertaken by corporations or governments in developing new services or products, or improving existing services or products.
Research and development constitutes the first stage of development of a potential new service or the production process.

R&D activities differ from institution to institution, with two primary models of an R&D department either staffed by engineers and tasked with directly developing new products, or staffed with industrial scientists and tasked with applied research in scientific or technological fields, which may facilitate future product development.
R&D differs from the vast majority of corporate activities in that it is not intended to yield immediate profit, and generally carries greater risk and an uncertain return on investment.
However R&D is crucial for acquiring larger shares of the market through the marketisation of new products.

Contents
1 Background
2 Business R&D
2.1 Benefit by sector
2.2 Global
3 Government expenditures
3.1 United States
3.2 European Union
3.3 Worldwide

For more information, see Research and development .

For more information, see
Quaternary sector of the economy .

From Wikipedia:
Trade
Trade involves the transfer of goods or services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money.
A system or network that allows trade is called a market.
The first trade occurred when the farmer traded goods with the shepherd.

An early form of trade, barter, saw the direct exchange of goods and services for other goods and services.
Barter involves trading things without the use of money.
Later, one bartering party started to involve precious metals, which gained symbolic as well as practical importance.
Modern traders generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money.
As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning.
The invention of money (and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade.
Trade between two traders is called bilateral trade, while trade involving more than two traders is called multilateral trade.

In one modern view, trade exists due to specialization and the division of labor, a predominant form of economic activity in which individuals and groups concentrate on a small aspect of production, but use their output in trades for other products and needs.
Trade exists between regions because different regions may have a comparative advantage (perceived or real) in the production of some trade-able commodity—including production of natural resources scarce or limited elsewhere, or because different regions' sizes may encourage mass production.
In such circumstances, trade at market prices between locations can benefit both locations.

Retail trade consists of the sale of goods or merchandise from a very fixed location (such as a department store, boutique or kiosk), online or by mail, in small or individual lots for direct consumption or use by the purchaser.
Wholesale trade is defined as traffic in goods that are sold as merchandise to retailers, or to industrial, commercial, institutional, or other professional business users, or to other wholesalers and related subordinated services.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Prehistory
2.2 Ancient history
2.3 Later trade
2.3.1 Mediterranean and Near East
2.3.2 Indo-Pacific
2.3.3 Mesoamerica
2.4 Middle Ages
2.5 The Age of Sail and the Industrial Revolution
2.6 19th century
2.7 20th century
2.8 21st century
2.9 Free trade
3 Perspectives
3.1 Protectionism
3.2 Religion
3.3 Development of money
4 Trends
4.1 Doha rounds
4.2 China
5 International trade
5.1 Trade sanctions
5.2 Trade barriers
5.3 Fair trade

For more information, see
Trade .

Balance of trade From Wikipedia:
The balance of trade, commercial balance, or net exports (sometimes symbolized as NX), is the difference between the monetary value of a nation's exports and imports over a certain time period.
Sometimes a distinction is made between a balance of trade for goods versus one for services.
The balance of trade measures a flow of exports and imports over a given period of time.
The notion of the balance of trade does not mean that exports and imports are "in balance" with each other.

If a country exports a greater value than it imports, it has a trade surplus or positive trade balance, and conversely, if a country imports a greater value than it exports, it has a trade deficit or negative trade balance.
As of 2016, about 60 out of 200 countries have a trade surplus.
The notion that bilateral trade deficits are bad in and of themselves is overwhelmingly rejected by trade experts and economists.

Contents
1 Explanation
2 Examples
2.1 Historical Example
2.2 In 2016
2.3 Country Example: Armenia
3 Views on economic impact
3.1 Classical theory
3.1.1 Adam Smith on the balance of trade
3.2 Keynesian theory
3.3 Monetarist theory
3.4 Trade balance’s effects upon a nation's GDP 4 Balance of trade vs. balance of payments

For more information, see Balance of trade .
Cargo From Wikipedia:
In economics, the words cargo and freight refer in particular to goods or produce being conveyed – generally for commercial gain – by water, air or land.
Cargo was originally a shipload.
Cargo now covers all types of freight, including that carried by rail, van, truck, or intermodal container.
The term cargo is also used in case of goods in the cold-chain, because the perishable inventory is always in transit towards a final end-use, even when it is held in cold storage or other similar climate-controlled facility.

Multi-modal container units, designed as reusable carriers to facilitate unit load handling of the goods contained, are also referred to as cargo, specially by shipping lines and logistics operators.
Similarly, aircraft ULD boxes are also documented as cargo, with associated packing list of the items contained within.
When empty containers are shipped each unit is documented as a cargo and when goods are stored within, the contents are termed as containerised cargo.

Contents
1 Description
1.1 Marine
1.2 Air
1.3 Rail
1.4 Road
1.5 Less-than-truckload freight
1.6 Air freight
1.7 Truckload freight
1.8 Shipment categories
2 Shipping costs
3 Security concerns
4 Stabilization
5 Historical

For more information, see Cargo .
Economic sanctions From Wikipedia:
Economic sanctions are commercial and financial penalties applied by one or more countries against a targeted self-governing state, group, or individual.
Economic sanctions are not necessarily imposed because of economic circumstances—they may also be imposed for a variety of political, military, and social issues.
Economic sanctions can be used for achieving domestic and international purposes.

Economic sanctions generally aim to change the behavior of elites in the target country.
However, the efficacy of sanctions is debatable and sanctions can have unintended consequences.

Economic sanctions may include various forms of trade barriers, tariffs, and restrictions on financial transactions.
An embargo is similar, but usually implies a more severe sanction often with a direct air and/or naval blockade.

An embargo (from the Spanish embargo, meaning hindrance, obstruction, etc. in a general sense, a trading ban in trade terminology and literally "distraint" in juridic parlance) is the partial or complete prohibition of commerce and trade with a particular country/state or a group of countries.
Embargoes are considered strong diplomatic measures imposed in an effort, by the imposing country, to elicit a given national-interest result from the country on which it is imposed.
Embargoes are generally considered legal barriers to trade, not to be confused with blockades, which are often considered to be acts of war.
Embargoes can mean limiting or banning export or import, creating quotas for quantity, imposing special tolls, taxes, banning freight or transport vehicles, freezing or seizing freights, assets, bank accounts, limiting the transport of particular technologies or products (high-tech) for example CoCom during the cold-war.
In response to embargoes, a closed economy or autarky often develops in an area subjected to heavy embargo.
Effectiveness of embargoes is thus in proportion to the extent and degree of international participation.
Embargo can be an opportunity to some countries to develop faster a self-sufficiency.
However, Embargo may be necessary in various economic situations of the State forced to impose it, not necessarily therefore in case of war.

Contents
1 Politics of sanctions
1.1 Effectiveness of economic sanctions
2 Implications for businesses
3 Examples
4 Current sanctions
4.1 By targeted country
4.2 By targeted individuals
4.3 By sanctioning country
4.4 By targeted activity
4.5 Bilateral trade disputes
5 Former sanctions

For more information, see Economic sanctions .
Export From Wikipedia:
An export in international trade is a good or service produced in one country that is bought by someone in another country.
The seller of such goods and services is an exporter; the foreign buyer is an importer.

Export of goods often requires involvement of customs authorities.
An export's reverse counterpart is an import.

Contents
1 Exporting
2 Process
3 Barriers
3.1 Strategic
3.2 Tariffs
3.3 Overview
3.3.1 Advantages of exporting
3.3.2 Disadvantages of exporting
4 Export motivations and perceptions
5 In macroeconomics

For more information, see Export .
Fair trade From Wikipedia:
Fair trade is an institutional arrangement designed to help producers in developing countries achieve better trading conditions.
Members of the fair trade movement advocate the payment of higher prices to exporters, as well as improved social and environmental standards.
The movement focuses in particular on commodities, or products which are typically exported from developing countries to developed countries, but also consumed in domestic markets (e.g. Brazil, India and Bangladesh) most notably handicrafts, coffee, cocoa, wine, sugar, fresh fruit, chocolate, flowers and gold.
The movement seeks to promote greater equity in international trading partnerships through dialogue, transparency, and respect.
It promotes sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, marginalized producers and workers in developing countries.
Fair trade is grounded in three core beliefs; first, producers have the power to express unity with consumers.
Secondly, the world trade practices that currently exist promote the unequal distribution of wealth between nations.
Lastly, buying products from producers in developing countries at a fair price is a more efficient way of promoting sustainable development than traditional charity and aid.

Fair trade labelling organizations commonly use a definition of fair trade developed by FINE, an informal association of four international fair trade networks: Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International, World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO), Network of European Worldshops and European Fair Trade Association (EFTA).
Specifically, fair trade is a trading partnership, based on dialogue, transparency, and respect, that seeks greater equity in international trade. Fair trade organizations, backed by consumers, are engaged actively in supporting producers, awareness raising, and in campaigning for changes in the rules and practice of conventional international trade.

There are several recognized fair trade certifiers, including Fairtrade International (formerly called FLO, Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International), IMO, Make Trade Fair and Eco-Social.
Additionally, Fair Trade USA, formerly a licensing agency for the Fairtrade International label, broke from the system and implemented its own fair trade labelling scheme, which expanded the scope of fair trade to include independent smallholders and estates for all crops.
In 2008, Fairtrade International certified approximately (€3.4B) of products.

The fair trade movement is popular in the UK, where there are 500 Fairtrade towns, 118 universities, over 6,000 churches, and over 4,000 UK schools registered in the Fairtrade Schools Scheme.
In 2011, over 1.2 million farmers and workers in more than 60 countries participated in Fairtrade International's fair trade system, which included €65 million in fairtrade premium paid to producers for use developing their communities.
According to Fairtrade International, nearly six out of ten consumers have seen the Fairtrade mark and almost nine in ten of them trust it.

Some criticisms have been raised about fair trade systems.
One 2015 study in a journal published by the MIT Press concluded that producer benefits were close to zero because there was an oversupply of certification, and only a fraction of produce classified as fair trade was actually sold on fair trade markets, just enough to recoup the costs of certification.
Some research indicates that the implementation of certain fair trade standards can cause greater inequalities in some markets where these rigid rules are inappropriate for the specific market.
In the fair trade debate there are complaints of failure to enforce the fair trade standards, with producers, cooperatives, importers and packers profiting by evading them.
One proposed alternative to fair trade is direct trade, which eliminates the overhead of the fair trade certification, and allows suppliers to receive higher prices much closer to the retail value of the end product.
Some suppliers use relationships started in a fair trade system to autonomously springboard into direct sales relationships they negotiate themselves, whereas other direct trade systems are supplier-initiated for social responsibility reasons similar to a fair trade system.

Contents
1 System
2 Effect on growers
2.1 Social premium
3 Organizations Promoting Fair Trade
4 History
4.1 Solidarity trade
4.2 Handicrafts vs. agricultural goods
4.3 Rise of labeling initiatives
5 Psychology
6 Product certification
7 WFTO Fair Trade Organization membership
8 Alternative trading organizations
9 Universities
10 Worldshops
11 World wide
11.1 Africa
11.2 Latin America
11.3 Asia
11.4 Australia
12 Commodities
12.1 Coffee
12.1.1 Locations
12.1.2 Labour
12.1.3 Sustainability
12.1.4 Consumer attitudes
12.1.5 Coffee companies
12.2 Cocoa
12.2.1 Locations
12.2.2 Labour
12.2.3 Marketing
12.2.4 Sustainability
12.2.5 Cocoa companies
12.2.6 Harkin-Engel Protocol
12.3 Textiles
12.3.1 Locations
12.3.2 Labour
12.3.3 Clothing and textile companies
12.4 Seafood
12.5 Large companies and commodities
12.6 Luxury commodities
12.6.1 Diamonds and sourcing
12.6.2 Gold
12.7 Pornography or Sex industry
13 Politics
13.1 European Union
13.2 France
13.3 Italy
13.4 Netherlands
14 Criticism
14.1 Ethical basis
14.2 What occurs with the money?
14.2.1 Little money may reach the developing countries
14.2.2 Less money reaches farmers
14.2.3 Effects of low barriers to entry
14.3 Inefficient marketing system
14.4 Fair trade harms other farmers
14.4.1 Overproduction argument
14.5 Other ethical issues
14.5.1 Secrecy
14.5.2 Unethical selling techniques
14.6 Failure to monitor standards
14.7 Trade justice and fair trade
14.8 Political objections

For more information, see Fair trade .
Financial market From Wikipedia:
A financial market is a market in which people trade financial securities and derivatives at low transaction costs.
Securities include stocks and bonds, and precious metals.

The term "market" is sometimes used for what are more strictly exchanges, organizations that facilitate the trade in financial securities, e.g., a stock exchange or commodity exchange.
This may be a physical location (such as the NYSE, LSE, JSE, BSE) or an electronic system (such as NASDAQ).
Much trading of stocks takes place on an exchange; still, corporate actions (merger, spinoff) are outside an exchange, while any two companies or people, for whatever reason, may agree to sell stock from the one to the other without using an exchange.

Trading of currencies and bonds is largely on a bilateral basis, although some bonds trade on a stock exchange, and people are building electronic systems for these as well, to stock exchanges.

Contents
1 Types of financial markets
2 Raising capital
2.1 Lenders
2.1.1 Individuals and doubles
2.2 Companies
2.3 Borrowers
3 Derivative products
4 Analysis of financial markets
5 Financial market slang
6 Functions of financial markets
7 Components of financial market
7.1 Based on market levels
7.2 Based on security types

For more information, see Financial market .
Stock market From Wikipedia:
A stock market, equity market or share market is the aggregation of buyers and sellers (a loose network of economic transactions, not a physical facility or discrete entity) of stocks (also called shares), which represent ownership claims on businesses; these may include securities listed on a public stock exchange, as well as stock that is only traded privately.
Examples of the latter include shares of private companies which are sold to investors through equity crowdfunding platforms.
Stock exchanges list shares of common equity as well as other security types, e.g. corporate bonds and convertible bonds.

Contents
1 Size of the market
2 Stock exchange
3 Trade
4 Market participant
4.1 Trends in market participation
4.1.1 Indirect vs. direct investment
4.1.2 Participation by income and wealth strata
4.1.3 Participation by head of household race and gender
4.1.4 Determinants and possible explanations of stock market participation
5 History
5.1 Early history
5.2 Birth of formal stock markets
6 Importance
6.1 Function and purpose
6.2 Relation to the modern financial system
6.3 United States S&P stock market returns
6.4 Behavior of the stock market
6.5 Irrational behavior
6.6 Crashes
6.7 Stock market prediction
7 Stock market index
8 Derivative instruments
9 Leveraged strategies
9.1 Short selling
9.2 Margin buying
10 New issuance
11 Investment strategies
12 Taxation

For more information, see Stock market .
Bond market From Wikipedia:
The bond market (also debt market or credit market) is a financial market where participants can issue new debt, known as the primary market, or buy and sell debt securities, known as the secondary market.
This is usually in the form of bonds, but it may include notes, bills, and so on.

Its primary goal is to provide long-term funding for public and private expenditures.
The bond market has largely been dominated by the United States, which accounts for about 39% of the market.
As of 2017, the size of the worldwide bond market (total debt outstanding) is estimated at $100.13 trillion, according to Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association (SIFMA).

The bond market is part of the credit market, with bank loans forming the other main component.
The global credit market in aggregate is about 3 times the size of the global equity market.
Bank loans are not securities under the Securities and Exchange Act, but bonds typically are and are therefore more highly regulated.
Bonds are typically not secured by collateral (although they can be), and are sold in relatively small denominations of around $1,000 to $10,000.
Unlike bank loans, bonds may be held by retail investors.
Bonds are more frequently traded than loans, although not as often as equity.

Nearly all of the average daily trading in the U.S. bond market takes place between broker-dealers and large institutions in a decentralized over-the-counter (OTC) market.
However, a small number of bonds, primarily corporate ones, are listed on exchanges.
Bond trading prices and volumes are reported on FINRA's Trade Reporting and Compliance Engine, or TRACE.

An important part of the bond market is the government bond market, because of its size and liquidity.
Government bonds are often used to compare other bonds to measure credit risk.
Because of the inverse relationship between bond valuation and interest rates (or yields), the bond market is often used to indicate changes in interest rates or the shape of the yield curve, the measure of "cost of funding".
The yield on government bonds in low risk countries such as the United States or Germany is thought to indicate a risk-free rate of default.
Other bonds denominated in the same currencies (U.S. Dollars or Euros) will typically have higher yields, in large part because other borrowers are more likely than the U.S. or German Central Governments to default, and the losses to investors in the case of default are expected to be higher.
The primary way to default is to not pay in full or not pay on time.

Contents
1 Types
2 Participants
3 Size
3.1 U.S. bond market size
4 Volatility
5 Influence
6 Bond investments
7 Bond indices

For more information, see Bond market .
Commodity market From Wikipedia:
A commodity market is a market that trades in the primary economic sector rather than manufactured products, such as cocoa, fruit and sugar.
Hard commodities are mined, such as gold and oil.
Investors access about 50 major commodity markets worldwide with purely financial transactions increasingly outnumbering physical trades in which goods are delivered.
Futures contracts are the oldest way of investing in commodities.
Futures are secured by physical assets.
Commodity markets can include physical trading and derivatives trading using spot prices, forwards, futures, and options on futures.
Farmers have used a simple form of derivative trading in the commodity market for centuries for price risk management.

A financial derivative is a financial instrument whose value is derived from a commodity termed an underlier.
Derivatives are either exchange-traded or over-the-counter (OTC).
An increasing number of derivatives are traded via clearing houses some with central counterparty clearing, which provide clearing and settlement services on a futures exchange, as well as off-exchange in the OTC market.

Derivatives such as futures contracts, Swaps (1970s-), Exchange-traded Commodities (ETC) (2003-), forward contracts have become the primary trading instruments in commodity markets.
Futures are traded on regulated commodities exchanges. Over-the-counter (OTC) contracts are "privately negotiated bilateral contracts entered into between the contracting parties directly".

Exchange-traded funds (ETFs) began to feature commodities in 2003.
Gold ETFs are based on "electronic gold" that does not entail the ownership of physical bullion, with its added costs of insurance and storage in repositories such as the London bullion market.
According to the World Gold Council, ETFs allow investors to be exposed to the gold market without the risk of price volatility associated with gold as a physical commodity.

Contents
1 History
2 Commodity price index
3 Commodity index fund
4 Cash commodity
5 Call options
6 Electronic commodities trading
6.1 Complexity and interconnectedness of global market
6.2 Contracts in the commodity market
6.3 Standardization
7 Derivatives
7.1 Forward contracts
7.2 Futures contract
7.3 Swaps
7.4 Exchange-traded commodities (ETCs)
7.5 Over-the-counter (OTC) commodities derivatives
7.6 Contract for Difference (CFD)
8 Commodities exchange
9 Traded commodity classes
9.1 Energy
9.2 Metals
9.3 Agriculture
9.4 Diamonds
9.5 Other commodity markets
10 Regulatory bodies and policies
10.1 United States
10.2 European Union
11 Trading systems

For more information, see Commodity market .
Derivatives market From Wikipedia:
The derivatives market is the financial market for derivatives, financial instruments like futures contracts or options, which are derived from other forms of assets.

The market can be divided into two, that for exchange-traded derivatives and that for over-the-counter derivatives.
The legal nature of these products is very different, as well as the way they are traded, though many market participants are active in both.
The derivatives market in Europe has a notional amount of €660 trillion.

Contents
1 Participants in a Derivative Market
2 Futures markets
3 Over-the-counter markets
4 Netting
5 Controversy about the financial crisis

For more information, see Derivatives market .
Futures exchange From Wikipedia:
A futures exchange or futures market is a central financial exchange where people can trade standardized futures contracts; that is, a contract to buy specific quantities of a commodity or financial instrument at a specified price with delivery set at a specified time in the future.
These types of contracts fall into the category of derivatives.
The opposite of the futures market is the spots market, where trades will occur immediately (2 business days) after a transaction agreement has been made, rather than at a predetermined time in the future.
Futures instruments are priced according to the movement of the underlying asset (stock, physical commodity, index, etc.).
The aforementioned category is named "derivatives" because the value of these instruments are derived from another asset class.

Contents
1 Definition
2 History
2.1 Ancient times
2.2 Modern era
2.3 Recent developments
3 Nature of contracts
4 Standardization
5 Clearing and settlement
6 Central counterparty
7 Margin and Mark-to-Market
8 Regulators
9 Futures Data

For more information, see Futures exchange .
Foreign exchange market From Wikipedia:
The foreign exchange market (Forex, FX, or currency market) is a global decentralized or over-the-counter (OTC) market for the trading of currencies.
This market determines foreign exchange rates for every currency.
It includes all aspects of buying, selling and exchanging currencies at current or determined prices.
In terms of trading volume, it is by far the largest market in the world, followed by the Credit market.

The main participants in this market are the larger international banks.
Financial centers around the world function as anchors of trading between a wide range of multiple types of buyers and sellers around the clock, with the exception of weekends.
Since currencies are always traded in pairs, the foreign exchange market does not set a currency's absolute value but rather determines its relative value by setting the market price of one currency if paid for with another.
Ex: US$1 is worth X CAD, or CHF, or JPY, etc.

The foreign exchange market works through financial institutions and operates on several levels.
Behind the scenes, banks turn to a smaller number of financial firms known as "dealers", who are involved in large quantities of foreign exchange trading.
Most foreign exchange dealers are banks, so this behind-the-scenes market is sometimes called the "interbank market" (although a few insurance companies and other kinds of financial firms are involved).
Trades between foreign exchange dealers can be very large, involving hundreds of millions of dollars.
Because of the sovereignty issue when involving two currencies, Forex has little (if any) supervisory entity regulating its actions.

The foreign exchange market assists international trade and investments by enabling currency conversion.
For example, it permits a business in the United States to import goods from European Union member states, especially Eurozone members, and pay Euros, even though its income is in United States dollars.
It also supports direct speculation and evaluation relative to the value of currencies and the carry trade speculation, based on the differential interest rate between two currencies.

In a typical foreign exchange transaction, a party purchases some quantity of one currency by paying with some quantity of another currency.

The modern foreign exchange market began forming during the 1970s.
This followed three decades of government restrictions on foreign exchange transactions under the Bretton Woods system of monetary management, which set out the rules for commercial and financial relations among the world's major industrial states after World War II.
Countries gradually switched to floating exchange rates from the previous exchange rate regime, which remained fixed per the Bretton Woods system.

The foreign exchange market is unique because of the following characteristics:

- its huge trading volume, representing the largest asset class in the world leading to high liquidity;
- its geographical dispersion;
- its continuous operation: 24 hours a day except for weekends, i.e., trading from 22:00 GMT on Sunday (Sydney) until 22:00 GMT Friday (New York);
- the variety of factors that affect exchange rates;
- the low margins of relative profit compared with other markets of fixed income; and
- the use of leverage to enhance profit and loss margins and with respect to account size.

As such, it has been referred to as the market closest to the ideal of perfect competition, notwithstanding currency intervention by central banks.

According to the Bank for International Settlements, the preliminary global results from the 2016 Triennial Central Bank Survey of Foreign Exchange and OTC Derivatives Markets Activity show that trading in foreign exchange markets averaged $5.09 trillion per day in April 2016.
This is down from $5.4 trillion in April 2013 but up from $4.0 trillion in April 2010.
Measured by value, foreign exchange swaps were traded more than any other instrument in April 2016, at $2.4 trillion per day, followed by spot trading at $1.7 trillion.

The $5.09 trillion break-down is as follows:

- $1.654 trillion in spot transactions
- $700 billion in outright forwards
- $2.383 trillion in foreign exchange swaps
- $96 billion currency swaps
- $254 billion in options and other products

Contents
1 History
1.1 Ancient
1.2 Medieval and later
1.3 Early modern
1.4 Modern to post-modern
1.4.1 After World War II
1.4.2 Markets close
1.4.3 After 1973
2 Market size and liquidity
3 Market participants
3.1 Commercial companies
3.2 Central banks
3.3 Foreign exchange fixing
3.4 Investment management firms
3.5 Retail foreign exchange traders
3.6 Non-bank foreign exchange companies
3.7 Money transfer/remittance companies and bureaux de change
4 Trading characteristics
5 Determinants of exchange rates
5.1 Economic factors
5.2 Political conditions
5.3 Market psychology
6 Financial instruments
6.1 Spot
6.2 Forward
6.3 Non-deliverable forward (NDF)
6.4 Swap
6.5 Futures
6.6 Option
7 Speculation
8 Risk aversion
9 Carry trade

For more information, see Foreign exchange market .
Money market From Wikipedia:
Money market is an important part of the economy which provides short-term fund.The money market is the part of financial market which deals in the borrowing and lending of short-term loans generally for a period of less than or equal to 365 days.

As money became a commodity, the money market became a component of the financial market for assets involved in short-term borrowing, lending, buying and selling with original maturities of one year or less.
Trading in money markets is done over the counter and is wholesale.

There are several money market instruments in most Western countries, including treasury bills, commercial paper, bankers' acceptances, deposits, certificates of deposit, bills of exchange, repurchase agreements, federal funds, and short-lived mortgage- and asset-backed securities.
The instruments bear differing maturities, currencies, credit risks, and structure and thus may be used to distribute exposure.

Money markets, which provide liquidity for the global financial system including for capital markets, are part of the broader system of financial markets.

Contents
1 Participants
2 Functions of the money market
2.1 Financing trade
2.2 Financing industry
2.3 Profitable investment
2.4 Self-sufficiency of commercial bank
2.5 Help to central bank
3 Money market instruments
3.1 Discount and accrual instruments

For more information, see Money market .
Spot market From Wikipedia:
The spot market or cash market is a public financial market in which financial instruments or commodities are traded for immediate delivery.
It contrasts with a futures market, in which delivery is due at a later date.
In a spot market, settlement normally happens in T+2 working days, i.e., delivery of cash and commodity must be done after two working days of the trade date.
A spot market can be through an exchange or over-the-counter (OTC).
Spot markets can operate wherever the infrastructure exists to conduct the transaction.

Contents
1 Exchange
2 OTC
3 Examples
3.1 Energy Spot

For more information, see Spot market .
Interbank lending market From Wikipedia:
The interbank lending market is a market in which banks extend loans to one another for a specified term.
Most interbank loans are for maturities of one week or less, the majority being overnight.
Such loans are made at the interbank rate (also called the overnight rate if the term of the loan is overnight).
A sharp decline in transaction volume in this market was a major contributing factor to the collapse of several financial institutions during the financial crisis of 2007.

Banks are required to hold an adequate amount of liquid assets, such as cash, to manage any potential bank runs by clients.
If a bank cannot meet these liquidity requirements, it will need to borrow money in the interbank market to cover the shortfall.
Some banks, on the other hand, have excess liquid assets above and beyond the liquidity requirements.
These banks will lend money in the interbank market, receiving interest on the assets.

The interbank rate is the rate of interest charged on short-term loans between banks.
Banks borrow and lend money in the interbank lending market in order to manage liquidity and satisfy regulations such as reserve requirements.
The interest rate charged depends on the availability of money in the market, on prevailing rates and on the specific terms of the contract, such as term length.
There is a wide range of published interbank rates, including the federal funds rate (USA), the LIBOR (UK) and the Euribor (Eurozone).

Contents
1 Interbank segment of the money market
2 Role of interbank lending in the financial system
2.1 To support the fractional reserve banking model
2.2 A source of funds for banks
2.2.1 Funding liquidity risk
2.2.2 Longer-term trends in banks' sources of funds
2.3 Benchmarks for short-term lending rates
2.4 Monetary policy transmission
2.4.1 US federal funds market
2.4.2 Interest rate channel of monetary policy
3 Strains in interbank lending markets during the 2007 financial crisis
3.1 Possible explanations
3.1.1 Increase in counterparty risk
3.1.2 Liquidity hoarding
4 Glossary of key interbank lending rates
4.1 United States
4.1.1 Effective federal funds rate
4.1.2 US dollar Libor rate
4.2 Europe
4.3 Shanghai
4.4 Hong Kong
4.5 Australia

For more information, see Interbank lending market .
Exchange rate From Wikipedia:
In finance, an exchange rate is the rate at which one currency will be exchanged for another.
It is also regarded as the value of one country’s currency in relation to another currency.
For example, an interbank exchange rate of 114 Japanese yen to the United States dollar means that ¥114 will be exchanged for each US$1 or that US$1 will be exchanged for each ¥114.
In this case it is said that the price of a dollar in relation to yen is ¥114, or equivalently that the price of a yen in relation to dollars is $1/114.The government has the authority to change exchange rate when needed.

Exchange rates are determined in the foreign exchange market, which is open to a wide range of different types of buyers and sellers, and where currency trading is continuous: 24 hours a day except weekends, i.e. trading from 20:15 GMT on Sunday until 22:00 GMT Friday.
The spot exchange rate refers to the current exchange rate.
The forward exchange rate refers to an exchange rate that is quoted and traded today but for delivery and payment on a specific future date.

In the retail currency exchange market, different buying and selling rates will be quoted by money dealers.
Most trades are to or from the local currency.
The buying rate is the rate at which money dealers will buy foreign currency, and the selling rate is the rate at which they will sell that currency.
The quoted rates will incorporate an allowance for a dealer's margin (or profit) in trading, or else the margin may be recovered in the form of a commission or in some other way.
Different rates may also be quoted for cash, a documentary form or electronically.
The higher rate on documentary transactions has been justified as compensating for the additional time and cost of clearing the document.
On the other hand, cash is available for resale immediately, but brings security, storage, and transportation costs, and the cost of tying up capital in a stock of banknotes ( bills )

Contents
1 The retail exchange market
2 Quotations
3 Exchange rate regime
4 Exchange rate classification
4.1 Other classifications
5 Factors affecting the change of exchange rate
6 Fluctuations in exchange rates
7 Purchasing power of currency
8 Real exchange rate equilibrium and misalignment
9 Bilateral vs. effective exchange rate
10 Parallel exchange rate
11 Uncovered interest rate parity
12 Balance of payments model
13 Asset market model
14 Manipulation of exchange rates

For more information, see Exchange rate .
Exchange-rate regime From Wikipedia:
An exchange-rate regime is the way an authority manages its currency in relation to other currencies and the foreign exchange market.
It is closely related to monetary policy and the two are generally dependent on many of the same factors, such as economic scale and openness, inflation rate, elasticity of labor market, financial market development, capital mobility etc.

There are two major regime types: fixed (or pegged) exchange rate regimes, where the currency is tied to another currency, mostly reserve currencies such as the U.S. dollar or the euro or a basket of currencies; floating (or flexible) exchange rate regimes, where the economy dictates movements in the exchange rate.
However, the distinctions between fixed and floating exchange rate regimes are not so cut and dried in reality.
Thus, there are also intermediate exchange rate regimes.

This classification of exchange rate regime is based on the classification method carried out by GGOW (Ghosh、Guide、Ostry and Wolf, 1995, 1997), which combined the IMF de jure classification with the actual exchange behavior so as to differentiate between official and actual policies.
The GGOW classification method is also called Trichotomy Method.

Contents
1 Floating rate
2 Intermediate
3 Fixed rate

For more information, see Exchange-rate regime .
Free trade From Wikipedia:
Free trade is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports; it can also be understood as the free market idea applied to international trade.
In government, free trade is predominantly advocated by political parties that hold liberal economic positions while economically left-wing and nationalist political parties generally support protectionism, the opposite of free trade.

Most nations are today members of the World Trade Organization multilateral trade agreements.
Free trade was best exemplified by the unilateral stance of Great Britain who reduced regulations and duties on imports and exports from the mid nineteenth century to the 1920s.
An alternative approach, of creating free trade areas between groups of countries by agreement, such as that of the European Economic Area and the Mercosur open markets, creates a protectionist barrier between that free trade area and the rest of the world.
Most governments still impose some protectionist policies that are intended to support local employment, such as applying tariffs to imports or subsidies to exports.
Governments may also restrict free trade to limit exports of natural resources.
Other barriers that may hinder trade include import quotas, taxes and non-tariff barriers, such as regulatory legislation.

There is a broad consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth.
However, liberalization of trade can cause significant and unequally distributed losses, and the economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors.

Contents
1 Features
2 Economics
2.1 Economic models
2.1.1 Tariffs
2.2 Trade diversion
2.3 Economist opinions
3 History
3.1 Early era
3.2 Post-World War II
3.3 Modern era
3.3.1 Degree of free trade policies
3.3.1.1 Free trade in goods
4 Politics
4.1 Colonialism
5 Alternatives
6 In literature

For more information, see Free trade .
Free-trade area From Wikipedia:
A free-trade area is the region encompassing a trade bloc whose member countries have signed a free trade agreement (FTA).
Such agreements involve cooperation between at least two countries to reduce trade barriers, import quotas and tariffs, and to increase trade of goods and services with each other.
If natural persons are also free to move between the countries, in addition to a free-trade agreement, it would also be considered an open border.
It can be considered the second stage of economic integration.

It is important to note the difference between customs unions and free-trade areas.
Both types of trading blocs are related to internal arrangements which parties conclude in order to liberalize and facilitate trade among themselves.
The crucial difference between customs unions and free-trade areas is their approach to third parties.
While a customs union requires all parties to establish and maintain identical external tariffs with regard to trade with non-parties, parties to a free-trade area are not subject to such requirement.
Instead, they may establish and maintain whatever tariff regime applying to imports from non-parties as deemed necessary.
In a free-trade area without harmonized external tariffs, to eliminate the risk of trade deflection, parties will adopt a system of preferential rules of origin.

Regarding the term free-trade area, it is originally meant by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT 1994) to include only trade in goods.
An agreement with a similar purpose, i.e., to enhance liberalization of trade in services, is named under Article V of the General Agreement on Trade in Service (GATS) as an "economic integration agreement".
However, in practice, the term is now widely used to refer to agreements covering not only goods but also services and even investment.

Contents
1 Legal aspects of free-trade areas
2 Economic aspects of free-trade areas
3 Qualifying for preferences under a free-trade area
4 Databases on free-trade areas

For more information, see Free-trade area .
Globalization From Wikipedia:
Globalization or globalisation is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide.
As a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, globalization is considered by some as a form of capitalist expansion which entails the integration of local and national economies into a global, unregulated market economy.
Globalization has grown due to advances in transportation and communication technology.
With the increased global interactions comes the growth of international trade, ideas, and culture.
Globalization is primarily an economic process of interaction and integration that's associated with social and cultural aspects.
However, conflicts and diplomacy are also large parts of the history of globalization, and modern globalization.

Economically, globalization involves goods, services, the economic resources of capital, technology, and data.
Also, the expansions of global markets liberalize the economic activities of the exchange of goods and funds.
Removal of cross-border trade barriers has made formation of global markets more feasible.
The steam locomotive, steamship, jet engine, and container ships are some of the advances in the means of transport while the rise of the telegraph and its modern offspring, the Internet and mobile phones show development in telecommunications infrastructure.
All of these improvements have been major factors in globalization and have generated further interdependence of economic and cultural activities around the globe.
Though many scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times, others trace its history long before the European Age of Discovery and voyages to the New World, some even to the third millennium BC.
Large-scale globalization began in the 1820s.
In the late 19th century and early 20th century, the connectivity of the world's economies and cultures grew very quickly.
The term globalization is recent, only establishing its current meaning in the 1970s.

In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization: trade and transactions, capital and investment movements, migration and movement of people, and the dissemination of knowledge.
Further, environmental challenges such as global warming, cross-boundary water, air pollution, and over-fishing of the ocean are linked with globalization.
Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work organization, economics, socio-cultural resources, and the natural environment.
Academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three major areas: economic globalization, cultural globalization, and political globalization.

Contents
1 Etymology and usage
2 History
2.1 Archaic
2.2 Early modern
2.3 Modern
3 Economic globalization
4 Cultural globalization
5 Political globalization
5.1 Globalization and gender
6 Other dimensions
6.1 Movement of people
6.2 Movement of information
7 Measurement
8 Support and criticism
8.1 Public opinion on globalization
8.2 Economics
8.3 Global democracy
8.4 Global civics
8.5 International cooperation
8.6 Anti-globalization movement
8.7 Opposition to capital market integration
8.8 Anti-corporatism and anti-consumerism
8.9 Global justice and inequality
8.10 Anti-global governance
8.11 Environmentalist opposition
9 Food security
9.1 Norway

For more information, see Globalization .
Global financial system From Wikipedia:
The global financial system is the worldwide framework of legal agreements, institutions, and both formal and informal economic actors that together facilitate international flows of financial capital for purposes of investment and trade financing.
Since emerging in the late 19th century during the first modern wave of economic globalization, its evolution is marked by the establishment of central banks, multilateral treaties, and intergovernmental organizations aimed at improving the transparency, regulation, and effectiveness of international markets.
In the late 1800s, world migration and communication technology facilitated unprecedented growth in international trade and investment.
At the onset of World War I, trade contracted as foreign exchange markets became paralyzed by money market illiquidity.
Countries sought to defend against external shocks with protectionist policies and trade virtually halted by 1933, worsening the effects of the global Great Depression until a series of reciprocal trade agreements slowly reduced tariffs worldwide.
Efforts to revamp the international monetary system after World War II improved exchange rate stability, fostering record growth in global finance.

A series of currency devaluations and oil crises in the 1970s led most countries to float their currencies.
The world economy became increasingly financially integrated in the 1980s and 1990s due to capital account liberalization and financial deregulation.
A series of financial crises in Europe, Asia, and Latin America followed with contagious effects due to greater exposure to volatile capital flows.
The global financial crisis, which originated in the United States in 2007, quickly propagated among other nations and is recognized as the catalyst for the worldwide Great Recession.
A market adjustment to Greece's noncompliance with its monetary union in 2009 ignited a sovereign debt crisis among European nations known as the Eurozone crisis.

A country's decision to operate an open economy and globalize its financial capital carries monetary implications captured by the balance of payments.
It also renders exposure to risks in international finance, such as political deterioration, regulatory changes, foreign exchange controls, and legal uncertainties for property rights and investments.
Both individuals and groups may participate in the global financial system.
Consumers and international businesses undertake consumption, production, and investment.
Governments and intergovernmental bodies act as purveyors of international trade, economic development, and crisis management.
Regulatory bodies establish financial regulations and legal procedures, while independent bodies facilitate industry supervision.
Research institutes and other associations analyze data, publish reports and policy briefs, and host public discourse on global financial affairs.

While the global financial system is edging toward greater stability, governments must deal with differing regional or national needs.
Some nations are trying to systematically discontinue unconventional monetary policies installed to cultivate recovery, while others are expanding their scope and scale.
Emerging market policymakers face a challenge of precision as they must carefully institute sustainable macroeconomic policies during extraordinary market sensitivity without provoking investors to retreat their capital to stronger markets.
Nations' inability to align interests and achieve international consensus on matters such as banking regulation has perpetuated the risk of future global financial catastrophes.

Contents
1 History of international financial architecture
1.1 Emergence of financial globalization: 1870–1914
1.1.1 Panic of 1907
1.1.2 Birth of the U.S. Federal Reserve System: 1913
1.2 Interwar period: 1915–1944
1.2.1 Smoot–Hawley tariff of 1930
1.2.2 Formal abandonment of the Gold Standard
1.2.3 Trade liberalization in the United States
1.3 Rise of the Bretton Woods financial order: 1945
1.3.1 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade: 1947
1.4 Resurgence of financial globalization
1.4.1 Flexible exchange rate regimes: 1973-present
1.4.1.1 The post-Bretton Woods financial order: 1976
1.4.1.2 European Monetary System: 1979
1.4.2 Birth of the World Trade Organization: 1994
1.5 Financial integration and systemic crises: 1980-present
1.5.1 Birth of the European Economic and Monetary Union 1992
1.5.2 Global financial crisis
1.5.3 Eurozone crisis
2 Implications of globalized capital
2.1 Balance of payments
2.2 Unique financial risks
3 Participants
3.1 Economic actors
3.2 Regulatory bodies
3.3 Research organizations and other fora
4 Future of the global financial system
4.1 Reform efforts

For more information, see Global financial system .
Import From Wikipedia:
An import is a good brought into a jurisdiction, especially across a national border, from an external source.
The party bringing in the good is called an importer.
An import in the receiving country is an export from the sending country.
Importation and exportation are the defining financial transactions of international trade.

In international trade, the importation and exportation of goods are limited by import quotas and mandates from the customs authority.
The importing and exporting jurisdictions may impose a tariff (tax) on the goods.
In addition, the importation and exportation of goods are subject to trade agreements between the importing and exporting jurisdictions.

Contents
1 History
2 Definition
3 Balance of trade
4 Types of import

For more information, see Import .
International trade From Wikipedia:
International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories.

In most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP).
While international trade has existed throughout history (for example Uttarapatha, Silk Road, Amber Road, scramble for Africa, Atlantic slave trade, salt roads), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries.

Carrying out trade at an international level is a complex process when compared to domestic trade.
When trade takes place between two or more nations factors like currency, government policies, economy, judicial system, laws, and markets influence trade.

To smoothen and justify the process of trade between countries of different economic standing, some international economic organisations were formed, such as the World Trade Organization.
These organisations work towards the facilitation and growth of international trade.
Statistical services of intergovernmental and supranational organisations and national statistical agencies publish official statistics on international trade.

Contents
1 Characteristics of global trade
2 Differences from domestic trade
3 History
4 Theories and models
5 Most traded export products
6 Largest countries by total international trade
7 Top traded commodities by value (exports)
8 Observances

For more information, see International trade .
Trade agreement From Wikipedia:
A trade agreement (also known as trade pact) is a wide-ranging taxes, tariff and trade treaty that often includes investment guarantees.
It exists when two or more countries agree on terms that helps them trade with each other.
The most common trade agreements are of the preferential and free trade types are concluded in order to reduce (or eliminate) tariffs, quotas and other trade restrictions on items traded between the signatories.

The logic of formal trade agreements is that they outline what is agreed upon and the punishments for deviation from the rules set in the agreement.
Trade agreements therefore make misunderstandings less likely, and create confidence on both sides that cheating will be punished; this increases the likelihood of long-term cooperation.
An international organization, such as the IMF, can further incentivize cooperation by monitoring compliance with agreements and reporting third countries of the violations.
Monitoring by international agencies may be needed to detect non-tariff barriers, which are disguised attempts at creating trade barriers.

Trade pacts are frequently politically contentious since they may change economic customs and deepen interdependence with trade partners.
Increasing efficiency through "free trade" is a common goal.
For the most part, governments are supportive of further trade agreements.

There have been however some concerns expressed by the WTO.
According to Pascal Lamy, Director-General of the WTO, the proliferation of RTA “...is breeding concern — concern about incoherence, confusion, exponential increase of costs for business, unpredictability and even unfairness in trade relations.”
The position of the WTO is that while the typical trade agreements (called preferential or regional by the WTO) are useful to a degree, it is much more beneficial to focus on global agreements in the WTO framework such as the negotiations of the current Doha round.

The anti-globalization movement opposes such agreements almost by definition, but some groups normally allied within that movement, e.g. green parties, seek fair trade or safe trade provisions that moderate what they perceive to be the ill effects of globalization.

Contents
1 Classification of trade pacts
1.1 By number and type of signatories
1.2 U.S. regional trade agreements
1.3 By level of integration
1.4 Special agreements
1.5 By the World Trade Organization

For more information, see Trade agreement .
Protectionism From Wikipedia:
Protectionism is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas, and a variety of other government regulations.
Proponents claim that protectionist policies shield the producers, businesses, and workers of the import-competing sector in the country from foreign competitors.
However, they also reduce trade and adversely affect consumers in general (by raising the cost of imported goods), and harm the producers and workers in export sectors, both in the country implementing protectionist policies and in the countries protected against.

There is a consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade, deregulation, and the reduction of trade barriers has a significantly positive effect on economic growth.
Some scholars have implicated protectionism as the cause of some economic crises, most notably the Great Depression.
However, although trade liberalization can sometimes result in large and unequally distributed losses and gains, and can, in the short run, cause significant economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors, free trade has advantages of lowering costs of goods and services for both producers and consumers.

Contents
1 Protectionist policies
2 History
2.1 In the United States
2.2 In Europe
2.3 In Canada
2.4 In Latin America
3 Impact
3.1 Living standards
3.2 Growth
3.3 Developing world
3.4 Conflict
4 Current world trends

For more information, see Protectionism .
Tariff From Wikipedia:
A tariff is a tax on imports or exports between sovereign states.
It is a form of regulation of foreign trade and a policy that taxes foreign products to encourage or safeguard domestic industry.
Traditionally, states have used them as a source of income.
Now, they are among the most widely used instruments of protectionism, along with import and export quotas.

Tariffs can be fixed (a constant sum per unit of imported goods or a percentage of the price) or variable (the amount varies according to the price).
Taxing items coming into the country means people are less likely to buy them as they become more expensive.
The intention is that they buy local products instead – boosting the country's economy.
Tariffs therefore provide an incentive to develop production and replace imports with domestic products.
Tariffs are meant to reduce pressure from foreign competition and reduce the trade deficit.
They have historically been justified as a means to protect infant industries and to allow import substitution industrialization.
Tariffs may also be used to rectify artificially low prices for certain imported goods, due to 'dumping', export subsidies or currency manipulation.

There is near unanimous consensus among economists that tariffs have a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth.
However, liberalization of trade can cause significant and unequally distributed losses, and the economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Great Britain
2.2 United States
2.2.1 Tariffs and the Great Depression
2.3 Russia
2.3.1 India
2.3.2 Armenia
3 Customs duty
3.1 Calculation of customs duty
3.2 Harmonized System of Nomenclature
3.3 Customs authority
3.4 Evasion
3.5 Duty-free goods
3.6 Duty calculation for companies in real life
4 Economic analysis
4.1 Optimal tariff
5 Political analysis
6 Arguments in favor of tariffs
6.1 Protection of infant industry
6.2 Protection against dumping
6.3 Free trade and poverty
6.4 Criticism of the theory of comparative advantage
6.4.1 International mobility of capital and labour
6.4.2 Externalities
6.4.3 Cross-industrial movement of productive resources
6.4.4 Static vs. dynamic gains via international trade
6.4.5 Balanced trade and adjustment mechanisms
6.4.6 International trade as bartering
6.4.7 Using labour and capital to their full potential

For more information, see Tariff .
Trade barrier From Wikipedia:
Trade barriers are government-induced restrictions on international trade.

Economists generally agree that trade barriers are detrimental and decrease overall economic efficiency; this can be explained by the theory of comparative advantage.

Most trade barriers work on the same principle: the imposition of some sort of cost (money, time, bureaucracy, quota) on trade that raises the price or availability of the traded products.
If two or more nations repeatedly use trade barriers against each other, then a trade war results.
Barriers take the form of tariffs (which impose a financial burden on imports) and non-tariff barriers to trade (which uses other overt and covert means to restrict imports and occasionally exports).

In theory, free trade involves the removal of all such barriers, except perhaps those considered necessary for health or national security.
In practice, however, even those countries promoting free trade heavily subsidize certain industries, such as agriculture and steel.

Contents
1 Overview
2 Impacts of trade barriers on business
3 Examples of free trade areas

For more information, see Trade barrier .
Trade bloc From Wikipedia:
A trade bloc is a type of intergovernmental agreement, often part of a regional intergovernmental organization, where barriers to trade (tariffs and others) are reduced or eliminated among the participating states.

Trade blocs can be stand-alone agreements between several states (such as the North American Free Trade Agreement) or part of a regional organization (such as the European Union).
Depending on the level of economic integration, trade blocs can be classified as preferential trading areas, free-trade areas, customs unions, common markets, or economic and monetary unions.

Contents
1 Lists of trade blocs
2 Use
3 Terminology
4 Advantages and disadvantages
4.1 Advantages
4.2 Disadvantages
5 Statistics
6 Comparison between regional trade blocs

For more information, see Trade bloc .
Trade facilitation From Wikipedia:
Trade facilitation looks at how procedures and controls governing the movement of goods across national borders can be improved to reduce associated cost burdens and maximise efficiency while safeguarding legitimate regulatory objectives.
Business costs may be a direct function of collecting information and submitting declarations or an indirect consequence of border checks in the form of delays and associated time penalties, forgone business opportunities and reduced competitiveness

Understanding and use of the term “trade facilitation” varies in the literature and amongst practitioners.
"Trade facilitation" is largely used by institutions which seek to improve the regulatory interface between government bodies and traders at national borders.
The WTO, in an online training package, has defined trade facilitation as “the simplification and harmonisation of international trade procedures”, where trade procedures are the “activities, practices and formalities involved in collecting, presenting, communicating and processing data required for the movement of goods in international trade”.

In defining the term, many trade facilitation proponents will also make reference to trade finance and the procedures applicable for making payments (e.g. via a commercial banks).
For example, UN/CEFACT defines trade facilitation as "the simplification, standardization and harmonisation of procedures and associated information flows required to move goods from seller to buyer and to make payment".

Occasionally, the term trade facilitation is extended to address a wider agenda in economic development and trade to include: the improvement of transport infrastructure, the removal of government corruption, the modernization of customs administration, the removal of other non-tariff trade barriers, as well as export marketing and promotion.

The World Trade Report 2015 provides an overview of the various trade facilitation definitions from academia as well as various international organizations, contrasting them with the scope of the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) concluded in December 2013.
The WTO TFA has become the new baseline for trade facilitation, with many countries striving to implement measures going beyond those included in this Agreement in order to maintain a competitive advantage in global markets.
Notably, most countries have focused their trade facilitation efforts on establishing electronic single windows and other paperless trade systems to further reduce trade costs.

Contents
1 Driving Factors of Trade Facilitation Agenda
2 Examples of regulatory activity in international trade
3 Topics and issues in trade facilitation

For more information, see Trade facilitation .
Trade finance From Wikipedia:
Trade finance signifies financing for trade, and it concerns both domestic and international trade transactions.
A trade transaction requires a seller of goods and services as well as a buyer.
Various intermediaries such as banks and financial institutions can facilitate these transactions by financing the trade.

Contents
1 Description
2 Products and services
3 Methods of payment

For more information, see Trade finance .
Trade war From Wikipedia:
A trade war is an economic conflict resulting from extreme protectionism in which states raise or create tariffs or other trade barriers against each other in response to trade barriers created by the other party.
Increased protection causes both nations' output compositions to move towards their autarky position.

Trade wars could be escalated to full conflict between states, as evidenced in the Massacre of the Bandanese after alleged violations of a new treaty.
The First Anglo-Dutch War caused by disputes over trade, the war began with English attacks on Dutch merchant shipping, but expanded to vast fleet actions.
The Second Anglo-Dutch War for control over the seas and trade routes, where England tried to end the Dutch domination of world trade during a period of intense European commercial rivalry.
The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War over British and Dutch disagreements on the legality and conduct of Dutch trade with Britain's enemies in that war.
The Shimonoseki Campaign after unrest over the shogunate's open-door policy to foreign trade.
The First Opium War which started after the Qing government blockaded its ports and confined British traders, resulted in the dispatch of the British Navy to China and engage the Chinese Navy in the Battle of Kowloon.
The First Opium War eventually led to the British colony of Hong Kong, and the Second Opium War, which arose from another trade war with the same underlying causes, expanded the British possessions on the island.

Contents
1 See also
1.1 General
1.2 Chronological

For more information, see Trade war .
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation From Wikipedia:
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is an inter-governmental forum for 21 Pacific Rim member economies that promotes free trade throughout the Asia-Pacific region.
Inspired from the success of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)’s series of post-ministerial conferences launched in the mid-1980s, the APEC was established in 1989 in response to the growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the advent of regional trade blocs in other parts of the world; and to establish new markets for agricultural products and raw materials beyond Europe.
Headquartered in Singapore, the APEC is recognized as one of the highest-level multilateral blocs and oldest forums in the Asia-Pacific region, and exerts a significant global influence.

An annual APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting is attended by the heads of government of all APEC members except Republic of China (which is represented by a ministerial-level official under the name Taiwan as economic leader).
The location of the meeting rotates annually among the member economies, and a famous tradition, followed for most (but not all) summits, involves the attending leaders dressing in a national costume of the host country.
APEC has three official observers: the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Secretariat, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council and the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat.
APEC's Host Economy of the Year is considered to be invited in the first place for geographical representation to attend G20 meetings following G20 guidelines.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Meeting locations
2 Member economies
2.1 Leaders
3 Possible enlargement
4 Business facilitation
4.1 Proposed FTAAP
5 APEC Study Centre Consortium
6 APEC Business Advisory Council
7 Annual APEC economic leaders' meetings
7.1 Meeting developments
7.2 APEC leaders' group photo
8 Criticism

For more information, see Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation .
Central European Free Trade Agreement From Wikipedia:
The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) is a trade agreement between non-EU countries, members of which are now mostly located in Southeastern Europe. Founded by representatives of Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, CEFTA expanded to Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia and the UNMIK (on behalf of Kosovo in accordance with UNSCR 1244).

Once a participating country joins the European Union (EU), its CEFTA membership ends.
As of 1 July 2013, the parties of the CEFTA agreement are: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia and the UNMIK on behalf of Kosovo.

Contents
1 Members
2 Membership criteria
3 Current members
4 History
4.1 Original agreement
4.2 2006 agreement
5 Relations with the European Union

For more information, see Central European Free Trade Agreement .
Council of Arab Economic Unity From Wikipedia:
The Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU) (Arabic: مجلس الوحدة الاقتصادي العربي‎) was founded by Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya, Mauritania, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Tunisia, Syria, United Arab Emirates and Yemen on May 30, 1964, following an agreement in 1957 by the Economic Council of the Arab League.

Contents
1 Objectives
2 Agadir Agreement
3 Greater Arab Free Trade Area

For more information, see Council of Arab Economic Unity .
Doha Development Round From Wikipedia:
The Doha Development Round or Doha Development Agenda (DDA) is the trade-negotiation round of the World Trade Organization (WTO) which commenced in November 2001 under then director-general Mike Moore.
Its objective was to lower trade barriers around the world, and thus facilitate increased global trade.

The Doha Round began with a ministerial-level meeting in Doha, Qatar in 2001.
The aim was to put less developed countries' priorities at heart.
The needs of the developing countries were the core reasons for the meeting.
The major factors discussed include trade facilitation, services, rules of origin and dispute settlement.
Special and differential treatment for the developing countries were also discussed as a major concern.
Subsequent ministerial meetings took place in Cancún, Mexico (2003), and Hong Kong (2005).
Related negotiations took place in Paris, France (2005), Potsdam, Germany (2007), and Geneva, Switzerland (2004, 2006, 2008);

Progress in negotiations stalled after the breakdown of the July 2008 negotiations.
The most significant differences are between developed nations led by the European Union (EU), the United States (US), Canada, and Japan and the major developing countries led and represented mainly by India, Brazil, China, and South Africa.
There is also considerable contention against and between the EU and the US over their maintenance of agricultural subsidies—seen to operate effectively as trade barriers.

Since the breakdown of negotiations in 2008, there have been repeated attempts to revive the talks, so far without success.
Intense negotiations, mostly between the US, China, and India, were held at the end of 2008 seeking agreement on negotiation modalities, an impasse which was not resolved.
In April 2011, then director-general Pascal Lamy "asked members to think hard about 'the consequences of throwing away ten years of solid multilateral work'."
A report to the WTO General Council by Lamy in May 2012 advocated "small steps, gradually moving forward the parts of the Doha Round which were mature, and re-thinking those where greater differences remained."
Adoption of the Bali Ministerial Declaration on 7 December 2013 for the first time successfully addressed bureaucratic barriers to commerce—a small part of the Doha Round agenda.
However, as of January 2014, the future of the Doha Round remains uncertain.

Contents
1 Negotiations
1.1 Before Doha
1.2 Doha, 2001
1.3 Cancún, 2003
1.4 Geneva, 2004
1.5 Paris, 2005
1.6 Hong Kong, 2005
1.7 Geneva, 2006
1.8 Potsdam, 2007
1.9 Geneva, 2008
1.10 Nairobi, 2015
2 Attempts to restore
3 Issues
3.1 Agriculture
3.2 Access to patented medicines
3.3 Special and differential treatment
3.4 Implementation issues
4 Benefits

For more information, see Doha Development Round .
Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement From Wikipedia:
The Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) is a free trade agreement (legally a treaty under international law).
Originally, the agreement encompassed the United States and the Central American countries of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, and was called CAFTA.
In 2004, the Dominican Republic joined the negotiations, and the agreement was renamed CAFTA-DR.

CAFTA-DR, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and active bilateral free trade agreements such as the Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement are seen as bloc agreements instead of a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) agreement.
Panama has completed negotiations with the United States for a bilateral free trade agreement known as the Panama–U.S. Trade Promotion Agreement, and has been in effect since October 2012.

The CAFTA-DR constitutes the first free trade agreement between the United States and a small group of developing countries.
It was created with the purpose of creating new and better economic opportunities by opening markets, eliminating tariffs, reducing barriers to services, and more.
In 2015, it was estimated that the total two-way trade resulted in $53 billion.
Nearly all Central American exports to the United States had already been tariff-free thanks to the 1984 Caribbean Basin Initiative.

Contents
1 Ratification
2 Aims
3 Support
4 Opposition
5 Provisions
5.1 Cross-border trade in services
5.2 Financial services
5.3 Investment
5.4 Government procurement
5.5 Agriculture
5.6 Intellectual property rights
5.7 Dispute resolution
5.8 Political standards

For more information, see Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement.
European Free Trade Association From Wikipedia:
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is a regional trade organization and free trade area consisting of four European states: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland.
The organization operates in parallel with the European Union (EU), and all four member states participate in the European Single Market and are part of the Schengen Area.
They are not, however, party to the European Union Customs Union.

EFTA was historically one of the two dominant western European trade blocs, but is now much smaller and closely associated with its historical competitor, the European Union.
It was established on 3 May 1960 to serve as an alternative trade bloc for those European states that were unable or unwilling to join the then European Economic Community (EEC), which subsequently became the European Union.
The Stockholm Convention (1960), to establish the EFTA, was signed on 4 January 1960 in the Swedish capital by seven countries (known as the "outer seven": Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom).

Since 1995, only two founding members remain, namely Norway and Switzerland.
The other five, Austria, Denmark, Portugal, Sweden and the United Kingdom, have joined the EU in the intervening years.
The initial Stockholm Convention was superseded by the Vaduz Convention, which aimed to provide a successful framework for continuing the expansion and liberalization of trade, both among the organization's member states and with the rest of the world.

Whilst the EFTA is not a customs union and member states have full rights to enter into bilateral third-country trade arrangements, it does have a coordinated trade policy.
As a result, its member states have jointly concluded free trade agreements with the EU and a number of other countries.
To participate in the EU's single market, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway are parties to the Agreement on a European Economic Area (EEA), with compliances regulated by the EFTA Surveillance Authority and the EFTA Court.
Switzerland has a set of bilateral agreements with the EU instead.

Contents
1 Membership
1.1 History
1.2 Current members
1.3 Former members
1.4 Other negotiations
1.4.1 Monaco, Andorra and San Marino
1.4.2 Norway
1.4.3 Switzerland
1.4.4 Iceland
1.4.5 Faroe Islands
1.4.6 United Kingdom
2 Organisation
2.1 Council
2.2 Secretariat
2.3 Locations
3 Relationship with the European Union: the European Economic Area
3.1 EEA institutions
3.2 EEA and Norway Grants
4 International conventions
5 International trade relations
5.1 Free trade agreements
5.2 Ongoing free trade negotiations
5.3 Declarations on cooperation or dialogue on closer trade relations
6 Travel policies
6.1 Free movement of people within the EEA
6.2 Dual citizenship
7 General secretaries
8 Other
8.1 Portugal Fund

For more information, see European Free Trade Association .
European Union From Wikipedia:
The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe.
It has an area of 4,475,757 km2 (1,728,099 sq mi) and an estimated population of about 513 million.
The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where members have agreed to act as one.
EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market, enact legislation in justice and home affairs and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development.
For travel within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished.
A monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002 and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency.

The EU and European citizenship were established when the Maastricht Treaty came into force in 1993.
The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC), established, respectively, by the 1951 Treaty of Paris and 1957 Treaty of Rome.
The original members of what came to be known as the European Communities were the Inner Six: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany.
The Communities and their successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to their remit.
The latest major amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU, the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009.
No member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations.
(Greenland, an autonomous country within Denmark, left the Communities in 1985).
However, the United Kingdom signified its intention to leave after a membership referendum in June 2016 and is negotiating its withdrawal.

Containing 7.3% of the world population, the EU in 2017 generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of 19.670 trillion US dollars, constituting approximately 24.6% of global nominal GDP.
Additionally, all 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme.
In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence.
The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20.
Because of its global influence, the European Union was described in 2006 as an emerging superpower.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Background
1.2 Preliminary (1945–57)
1.3 Treaty of Rome (1957–92)
1.4 Maastricht Treaty (1992–2007)
1.5 Lisbon Treaty (2007–present)
1.6 Structural evolution
1.7 Future enlargement
2 Demographics
2.1 Population
2.2 Urbanisation
2.3 Languages
2.4 Religion
3 Member states
3.1 Geography
4 Politics
4.1 European Parliament
4.2 European Council
4.3 Council of the European Union
4.4 European Commission
4.5 Budget
4.6 Competences
5 Legal system
5.1 Courts of Justice
5.2 Fundamental rights
5.3 Acts
6 Justice and home affairs
7 Foreign relations
7.1 Defence
7.2 Humanitarian aid
7.3 Regional and global influence
8 Economy
8.1 Internal market
8.2 Monetary union
8.3 Energy
8.4 Infrastructure
8.5 Agriculture
8.6 Competition
9 Social policy
9.1 Environment
9.2 Education and science
9.3 Health care
10 Culture
10.1 Sport
10.2 Symbols
10.3 Media

For more information, see European Union .
Free Trade Area of the Americas From Wikipedia:
The Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) was a proposed agreement to eliminate or reduce the trade barriers among all countries in the Americas, excluding Cuba.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Beginning
1.2 Disagreements
1.3 Current status
2 Membership
3 Support and opposition
4 Agreements
4.1 Previous agreements
4.2 Current agreements
4.3 Proposed agreements
5 Security pacts

For more information, see Free Trade Area of the Americas .
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade From Wikipedia:
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is a legal agreement between many countries, whose overall purpose was to promote international trade by reducing or eliminating trade barriers such as tariffs or quotas.
According to its preamble, its purpose was the "substantial reduction of tariffs and other trade barriers and the elimination of preferences, on a reciprocal and mutually advantageous basis."

It was first discussed during the United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment and was the outcome of the failure of negotiating governments to create the International Trade Organization (ITO).
GATT was signed by 23 nations in Geneva on 30 October 1947, and took effect on 1 January 1948.
It remained in effect until the signature by 123 nations in Marrakesh on 14 April 1994, of the Uruguay Round Agreements, which established the World Trade Organization (WTO) on 1 January 1995.
The WTO is a successor to GATT, and the original GATT text (GATT 1947) is still in effect under the WTO framework, subject to the modifications of GATT 1994.

GATT, and its successor WTO, have successfully reduced tariffs.
The average tariff levels for the major GATT participants were about 22% in 1947, but were 5% after the Uruguay Round in 1999.
Experts attribute part of these tariff changes to GATT and the WTO.

Contents
1 Rounds
1.1 Annecy Round: 1949
1.2 Torquay Round: 1951
1.3 Geneva Round: 1955–56
1.4 Dillon Round: 1960–62
1.5 Kennedy Round: 1964–67
1.6 Tokyo Round: 1973–79
1.7 Uruguay Round: 1986–94
2 GATT and the World Trade Organization
3 Effects on trade liberalization
4 Article 24

For more information, see General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade .
International Chamber of Commerce From Wikipedia:
The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC; French: Chambre de commerce internationale) is the largest, most representative business organization in the world.
Its 6 million members in over 100 countries have interests spanning every sector of private enterprise.

ICC has three main activities: rule setting, dispute resolution, and policy advocacy.
Because its member companies and associations are themselves engaged in international business, ICC has unrivalled authority in making rules that govern the conduct of business across borders.
Although these rules are voluntary, they are observed in countless thousands of transactions every day and have become part of international trade.

A world network of national committees in over 100 countries advocates business priorities at national and regional level.
More than 3,000 experts drawn from ICC's member companies feed their knowledge and experience into crafting the ICC stance on specific business issues.

ICC supports the work of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, and many other intergovernmental bodies, both international and regional, such as G20 on behalf of international business.
ICC was the first organization granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council and UN Observer Status.

Contents
1 History
2 Membership
3 Governing bodies
3.1 World Council
3.2 Executive Board
3.3 International Secretariat
3.4 National Committees
3.5 Finance Committee
4 Dispute resolution services
5 Policy and business practices
5.1 Code of Advertising and Marketing Communication Practice
6 World Chambers Federation
7 Training and events
8 ICC Publications
9 ICC Commercial Crime Services
10 Special projects and initiatives
10.1 Business Action to Stop Counterfeiting and Piracy (BASCAP)
10.2 Business Action to Support the Information Society
10.3 ICC Business World Trade Agenda
10.4 ICC and the United Nations
11 ICC Research Foundation

For more information, see International Chamber of Commerce .
International Monetary Fund From Wikipedia:
The International Monetary Fund (IMF), also known as the Fund, is an international organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., consisting of 189 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world.
Formed in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference primarily by the ideas of Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes, it came into formal existence in 1945 with 29 member countries and the goal of reconstructing the international payment system.
It now plays a central role in the management of balance of payments difficulties and international financial crises.
Countries contribute funds to a pool through a quota system from which countries experiencing balance of payments problems can borrow money.
As of 2016, the fund had SDR477 billion (about $667 billion).

Through the fund and other activities such as the gathering of statistics and analysis, surveillance of its members' economies, and the demand for particular policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its member countries.
The organisation's objectives stated in the Articles of Agreement are: to promote international monetary co-operation, international trade, high employment, exchange-rate stability, sustainable economic growth, and making resources available to member countries in financial difficulty.
IMF funds come from two major sources: quotas and loans.
Quotas, which are pooled funds of member nations, generate most IMF funds.
The size of a member's quota depends on its economic and financial importance in the world.
Nations with larger economic importance have larger quotas.
The quotas are increased periodically as a means of boosting the IMF's resources.

The current Managing Director (MD) and Chairwoman of the International Monetary Fund is French lawyer and former politician, Christine Lagarde, who has held the post since 5 July 2011.

Gita Gopinath was appointed as Chief Economist of IMF from 1 October 2018.
She received her PhD in economics from Princeton University.
Prior to her IMF appointment she was economic adviser to the Chief Minister of Kerala, India.

Contents
1 Functions
1.1 Surveillance of the global economy
1.2 Conditionality of loans
1.2.1 Structural adjustment
1.2.2 Benefits
2 History
2.1 21st century
3 Member countries
3.1 Qualifications
3.2 Benefits
4 Leadership
4.1 Board of Governors
4.2 Executive Board
4.3 Managing Director
4.3.1 List of Managing Directors
5 Voting power
5.1 Effects of the quota system
5.2 Inflexibility of voting power
5.3 Overcoming borrower/creditor divide
6 Use
6.1 Exceptional Access Framework – sovereign debt
7 IMF and globalization
8 Criticisms
8.1 Conditionality
8.2 Reform
8.2.1 Function and policies
8.2.2 US influence and voting reform
8.3 Support of dictatorships
8.4 Impact on access to food
8.5 Impact on public health
8.6 Impact on environment
8.7 Impact on gender equality
9 Scandals
10 Alternatives
11 In the media

For more information, see International Monetary Fund .
International Trade Organization From Wikipedia:
The International Trade Organization (ITO) was the proposed name for an international institution for the regulation of trade.

Led by the United States in collaboration with allies, the effort to form the organization from 1945 to 1948, with the successful passing of the Havana Charter, eventually failed due to lack of approval by the US Congress.
Until the creation of the World Trade Organization in 1994, international trade was managed through the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

Contents
1 History
1.1 Proposal of an international trade institution
1.2 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
1.3 Havana Charter
1.4 Failure in United States Congress
1.5 Individual trade agreements and World Trade Organization

For more information, see International Trade Organization .
North American Free Trade Agreement From Wikipedia:
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA; Spanish: Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del Norte, TLCAN; French: Accord de libre-échange nord-américain, ALÉNA) is an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States, creating a trilateral trade bloc in North America.
The agreement came into force on January 1, 1994, and superseded the 1988 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement between the United States and Canada.
The NAFTA trade bloc is one of the largest trade blocs in the world by gross domestic product.

The impetus for a North American free trade zone began with U.S. President Ronald Reagan, who made the idea part of his 1980 presidential campaign.
After the signing of the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement in 1988, the administrations of U.S. President George H. W. Bush, Mexican President Carlos Salinas de Gortari, and Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney agreed to negotiate what became NAFTA.
Each submitted the agreement for ratification in their respective capitals in December 1992, but NAFTA faced significant opposition in both the United States and Canada.
All three countries ratified NAFTA in 1993 after the addition of two side agreements, the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC) and the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC).

Passage of NAFTA resulted in the elimination or reduction of barriers to trade and investment between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico.
The effects of the agreement regarding issues such as employment, the environment, and economic growth have been the subject of political disputes.
Most economic analyses indicate that NAFTA has been beneficial to the North American economies and the average citizen, but has harmed a small minority of workers in industries exposed to trade competition.
Economists hold that withdrawing from NAFTA or renegotiating NAFTA in a way that reestablishes trade barriers would adversely affect the U.S. economy and cost jobs.
However, Mexico would be much more severely affected by job loss and reduction of economic growth in both the short term and long term.

After U.S. President Donald Trump took office in January 2017, he sought to replace NAFTA with a new agreement, beginning negotiations with Canada and Mexico. In September 2018, the United States, Mexico, and Canada reached an agreement to replace NAFTA with the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA).
NAFTA will remain in force, pending the ratification of the USMCA.

Contents
1 Negotiation, signing, ratification, and revision (1988–94)
1.1 Negotiation
1.2 Signing
1.3 Ratification
1.3.1 Canada
1.3.2 United States
1.3.3 Mexico
2 Provisions
2.1 Intellectual property
2.2 Environment
2.3 Agriculture
2.4 Transportation infrastructure
3 Impact
3.1 Canada
3.1.1 Historical context
3.1.2 Current issues
3.2 Mexico
3.3 United States
3.3.1 Trade balances
3.3.2 Investment
3.4 Economy and jobs
3.5 Environment
3.6 Mobility of persons
4 Disputes and controversies
4.1 1992 U.S. presidential candidate Ross Perot
4.2 Legal disputes
4.2.1 Change in income trust taxation not expropriation
4.3 Impact on Mexican farmers
4.4 Zapatista Uprising in Chiapas, Mexico
4.5 Chapter 11
4.6 Chapter 19
4.7 Criticism from 2016 U.S. presidential candidates
5 Policy of the Trump administration
5.1 Renegotiation
5.2 Impact of withdrawing from NAFTA
6 Trans-Pacific Partnership
7 American public opinion on NAFTA

For more information, see North American Free Trade Agreement .
South Asian Free Trade Area From Wikipedia:
The South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) is an agreement reached on January 6, 2004, at the 12th SAARC summit in Islamabad, Pakistan.
It created a free trade area of 1.6 billion people in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka (as of 2018, the combined population is 2.08 billion people, about 27% of the world's population of 7725183000 ). to reduce customs duties of all traded goods to zero by the year 2016.
The SAFTA agreement came into force on January 1, 2006, and is operational following the ratification of the agreement by the seven governments.
SAFTA required the developing countries in South Asia (India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) to bring their duties down to 20 percent in the first phase of the two-year period ending in 2007.
In the final five-year phase ending in 2012, the 20 percent duty was reduced to zero in a series of annual cuts.
The least developed nations in South Asia (Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan and Maldives) had an additional three years to reduce tariffs to zero. India and Pakistan ratified the treaty in 2009, whereas Afghanistan as the 8th member state of the SAARC ratified the SAFTA protocol on 4 May 2011.

Contents
1 History
2 Purpose of the agreement
3 Objective
4 Instruments
5 Trade Liberalisation Programme
6 Sensitive list

For more information, see South Asian Free Trade Area .
TRIPS Agreement From Wikipedia:
The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international legal agreement between all the member nations of the World Trade Organization (WTO).
It sets down minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of many forms of intellectual property (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations.
TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) between 1989 and 1990 and is administered by the WTO.

The TRIPS agreement introduced intellectual property law into the multilateral trading system for the first time and remains the most comprehensive multilateral agreement on intellectual property to date.
In 2001, developing countries, concerned that developed countries were insisting on an overly narrow reading of TRIPS, initiated a round of talks that resulted in the Doha Declaration.
The Doha declaration is a WTO statement that clarifies the scope of TRIPS, stating for example that TRIPS can and should be interpreted in light of the goal "to promote access to medicines for all."

Specifically, TRIPS requires WTO members to provide copyright rights, covering authors and other copyright holders, as well as holders of related rights, namely performers, sound recording producers and broadcasting organisations; geographical indications; industrial designs; integrated circuit layout-designs; patents; new plant varieties; trademarks; trade names and undisclosed or confidential information.
TRIPS also specifies enforcement procedures, remedies, and dispute resolution procedures.
Protection and enforcement of all intellectual property rights shall meet the objectives to contribute to the promotion of technological innovation and to the transfer and dissemination of technology, to the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological knowledge and in a manner conducive to social and economic welfare, and to a balance of rights and obligations.

Contents
1 Background and history
2 The requirements of TRIPS
2.1 Access to essential medicines
2.2 Software and business method patents
3 Implementation in developing countries
4 Post-TRIPS expansion
5 Panel reports
6 Criticism
7 See also
7.1 Related treaties and laws
7.2 Related organizations
7.3 Other

For more information, see TRIPS Agreement .
Union of South American Nations From Wikipedia:
The Union of South American Nations (USAN; Spanish: Unión de Naciones Suramericanas, UNASUR; Portuguese: União de Nações Sul-Americanas, UNASUL; Dutch: Unie van Zuid-Amerikaanse Naties, UZAN; and sometimes referred to as the South American Union) is an intergovernmental regional organization that once comprised twelve South American countries; as of 2019, most have withdrawn.

The UNASUR Constitutive Treaty was signed on 23 May 2008, at the Third Summit of Heads of State, held in Brasília, Brazil.
According to the Constitutive Treaty, the Union's headquarters will be located in Quito, Ecuador.
On 1 December 2010, Uruguay became the ninth state to ratify the UNASUR treaty, thus giving the union full legality.
As the Constitutive Treaty entered into force on 11 March 2011, UNASUR became a legal entity during a meeting of Foreign Ministers in Mitad del Mundo, Ecuador, where they had laid the foundation stone for the Secretariat Headquarters.

In April 2018, six countries—Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Paraguay and Peru —suspended their membership, and in August of the same year, Colombia announced its withdrawal from the organization.
In March 2019, Brazil's president Jair Bolsonaro announced his country's intention to withdraw from the organization.
On March 13, 2019, Ecuador announced that it will withdraw from the organization.
The president of the country, Lenin Moreno, also asked the bloc to return the headquarters building of the organization, based in Quito.

In January 2019, amid growing concern about Venezuela's Nicolas Maduro, a new group, PROSUR, has been advanced to "counteract the influence of what countries in the region call a dictatorship in Venezuela".
A Chilean summit to organize Prosur will be held in March 2019, and would exclude Venezuela.
Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Uruguay, Paraguay, Peru, Guyana and Suriname were invited to join the new regional bloc.

Contents
1 Overview
2 History
2.1 Background
2.2 Formation
2.3 Naming
2.4 Leadership crisis
2.5 Countries renouncing the treaty
2.5.1 Colombia
2.5.2 Brazil
2.5.3 Ecuador
3 Structure
3.1 Secretary General
3.2 Presidency pro tempore
3.3 Councils and bodies
3.3.1 Ministerial Councils
3.3.2 Other institutions
3.4 Council of Economy and Finance
3.5 Council of South American Defense
3.6 South American Council of Health
4 Summits
5 Demographics
5.1 Languages
5.2 Religion
6 Economy
6.1 Common Market
6.2 Economic development
6.3 Monetary policy
7 Defense policy
8 Democracy
9 Free movement of people
10 Electoral monitors
11 Participating nation states
11.1 Participating non-South American territories
11.2 Non-participating South American states and territories

For more information, see Union of South American Nations .
World Trade Organization From Wikipedia:
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that is concerned with the regulation of international trade between nations.
The WTO officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, signed by 123 nations on 15 April 1994, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948.
It is the largest international economic organization in the world.

The WTO deals with regulation of trade in goods, services and intellectual property between participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by representatives of member governments and ratified by their parliaments.
The WTO prohibits discrimination between trading partners, but provides exceptions for environmental protection, national security, and other important goals.
Trade-related disputes are resolved by independent judges at the WTO through a dispute resolution process.

The WTO's current Director-General is Roberto Azevêdo, who leads a staff of over 600 people in Geneva, Switzerland.
A trade facilitation agreement, part of the Bali Package of decisions, was agreed by all members on 7 December 2013, the first comprehensive agreement in the organization's history.
On 23 January 2017, the amendment to the WTO Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement marks the first time since the organization opened in 1995 that WTO accords have been amended, and this change should secure for developing countries a legal pathway to access affordable remedies under WTO rules.

Studies show that the WTO boosted trade, and that barriers to trade would be higher in the absence of the WTO.
The WTO has highly influenced the text of trade agreements, as "nearly all recent [preferential trade agreements (PTAs)] reference the WTO explicitly, often dozens of times across multiple chapters... in many of these same PTAs we find that substantial portions of treaty language—sometime the majority of a chapter—is copied verbatim from a WTO agreement."

Contents
1 History
1.1 GATT Negotiations before Uruguay
1.2 Uruguay Round: 1986–1994
1.3 Ministerial conferences
1.4 Doha Round (Doha Agenda): 2001–
2 Functions
3 Principles of the trading system
4 Organizational structure
5 Decision-making
6 Dispute settlement
7 Accession and membership
7.1 Accession process
7.2 Members and observers
8 Agreements
9 Office of director-general
9.1 List of directors-general
10 Impact
11 Criticism

For more information, see World Trade Organization .
List of trading companies From Wikipedia:
This is a list of trading companies.
A trading company is a business that works with different kinds of products sold for consumer, business or government purposes.
In contemporary times, trading companies buy a specialized range of products, broker them, and coordinate delivery of products to customers.

Trading companies may connect buyers and sellers, but not partake in the ownership or storage of goods, earning their revenue through sales commissions.
They may also be structured to engage in commerce with foreign countries or territories.
During times of colonization, some trading companies were granted a charter, giving them "rights to a specific territory within an area claimed by the authority granting the charter including legal title, a monopoly of trade, and governmental and military jurisdiction".
Furthermore, trading companies may comprise a limited liability, unincorporated entity, designed to "settle and develop a land grant obtained from a legally incorporated company".

Contents
1 Trading companies
1.1 By Country
1.1.1 Brazil
1.1.2 South Korea
1.1.3 Japan
1.1.4 Turkey
1.2 Oil traders

For more information, see List of trading companies .
List of bilateral free-trade agreements From Wikipedia:
This is list of free-trade agreements between two sides, where each side could be a country (or other customs territory), a trade bloc or an informal group of countries.

Note: Every customs union, common market, economic union, customs and monetary union and economic and monetary union is also a free-trade area.

For fully multilateral agreements (not included below) see: List of multilateral free-trade agreements.

For a general explanation, see free-trade area.

Contents
1 Operating agreements
1.1 Armenia
1.2 ASEAN
1.3 CARICOM
1.4 China, People's Republic of China
1.5 Costa Rica
1.6 Eurasian Economic Union
1.7 European Free Trade Association
1.8 European Union
1.9 Faroe Islands
1.10 Georgia
1.11 Gulf Cooperation Council
1.12 India
1.13 Japan
1.14 Jordan
1.15 Kyrgyz Republic
1.16 Lebanon
1.17 Malaysia
1.18 Maldives
1.19 Mercosur
1.20 Mexico
1.21 Morocco
1.22 New Zealand
1.23 Panama
1.24 Taiwan, Republic of China
1.25 Peru
1.26 Serbia
1.27 Singapore
1.28 South Korea
1.29 Switzerland
1.30 Thailand
1.31 Tunisia
1.32 United States
1.33 United Kingdom
1.34 Table (to be merged)
2 Signed agreements
3 Proposed bilateral agreements
4 Defunct bilateral agreements

For more information, see List of bilateral free-trade agreements .
List of multilateral free-trade agreements From Wikipedia:
This is a list of multilateral free-trade agreements, between several countries all treated equally.
For agreements between two countries, between a bloc and a country, or between two blocs, see list of bilateral free-trade agreements; these are not listed below.

Every customs union, common market, economic union, customs and monetary union and economic and monetary union is also a free-trade area; these are listed on these separate articles and are not included below.

For a general explanation, see free-trade area.

Contents
1 World Trade Organization agreements
2 Operating agreements
3 Pending ratification
4 Proposed agreements
5 Agreements no longer active
6 Agreements signed but never in effect

For more information, see List of multilateral free-trade agreements .
List of countries by exports From Wikipedia:
This is a list of countries by merchandise exports, based on The World Factbook of the CIA.

For more information, see List of countries by exports .
List of countries by imports From Wikipedia:
This is a list of countries by total imports, based on the CIA World Factbook.

For more information, see List of countries by imports .
List of countries by leading trade partners From Wikipedia:
For most economies in the world, their leading export and import trading partner in terms of value is either the European Union or China, and to a certain degree, the United States and Japan
Other countries like Russia, Brazil, India and South Africa are emerging as significant markets or source countries in different parts of the world.

Individually for each European Union member trade with all other European Union members collectively is greater than any other trading partner.
Both the European Union and the United States have China as their largest origin of imports.
China's own largest source of imports is European Union.
In other parts of the world the European Union or the United States is the largest trading partner, however other leading trading countries may be the most prominent in certain countries.
Brazil, Russia and South Africa are becoming increasingly dominant in their respective regional areas.

Some isolated countries depend on a larger neighbour to be their largest trading partner – Venezuela is one of Cuba's key export markets, while doubly-landlocked Uzbekistan exports chiefly to Tajikistan and Afghanistan, its singly-landlocked neighbours.

The largest import and export merchandise trade partners for most countries of the world are listed below.
Details for the European Union, Hong Kong and Macau are also included.
In most cases the data relates to 2016 rankings. Data was extracted from the World Trade Organization's Trade Profile Database.

For more information, see List of countries by leading trade partners .
List of countries by trade-to-GDP ratio From Wikipedia:
The following list sorts countries by their trade-to-GDP ratio according to data by the world bank.

List
Countries sorted by exports, imports and total trade (external trade rate) of goods and services as a share of the gross domestic product of the same year.
Since GDP is only the value added domestically, it may happen that small countries export more than is produced in the country and/or import more than is consumed in the country and the external trade rate is thus over 100%.

For more information, see List of countries by trade-to-GDP ratio .
List of countries by net exports From Wikipedia:
This is a list of countries by net exports according to the CIA World Factbook.
This list includes some non-sovereign entities, but only sovereign territories are ranked.
Countries with positive net exports have a trade surplus, countries with negative net exports have a trade deficit.

For more information, see List of countries by net exports .

For more information, see
Trade .

From Wikipedia:
Science (from the Latin word scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
...
Modern science is typically divided into three major branches that consist of the natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which study nature in the broadest sense; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which study abstract concepts.
There is disagreement, however, on whether the formal sciences actually constitute a science as they do not rely on empirical evidence.
Disciplines that use existing scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences.

Science is based on research, which is commonly conducted in academic and research institutions as well as in government agencies and companies.
The practical impact of scientific research has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the development of commercial products, armaments, health care, and environmental protection.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Early cultures
1.2 Classical antiquity
1.3 Medieval science
1.4 Renaissance and early modern science
1.5 Age of Enlightenment
1.6 19th century
1.7 20th century
1.8 21st century
2 Branches of science
2.1 Natural science
2.2 Social science
2.3 Formal science
3 Scientific research
3.1 Scientific method
3.1.1 Verifiability
3.2 Role of mathematics
3.3 Philosophy of science
3.3.1 Certainty and science
3.4 Scientific literature
3.5 Practical impacts
3.6 Challenges
3.6.1 Replication crisis
3.6.2 Fringe science, pseudoscience, and junk science
4 Scientific community
4.1 Scientists
4.1.1 Women in science
4.2 Learned societies
5 Science and the public
5.1 Science policy
5.1.1 Funding of science
5.2 Public awareness of science
5.3 Science journalism
5.4 Politicization of science

Branches of science From Wikipedia:
The branches of science, also referred to as sciences, "scientific fields", or "scientific disciplines," are commonly divided into three major groups:

Formal sciences: the study of logic, mathematics and linguistics, which use an a priori, as opposed to empirical, methodology.
Natural sciences: the study of natural phenomena (including cosmological, geological, physical, chemical, and biological factors of the universe). Natural science can be divided into two main branches: physical science and life science (or biological science).
Social sciences: the study of human behavior and societies.

Natural and social sciences are empirical sciences, meaning that the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions.
This verifiability may well vary even within a scientific discipline

Natural, social, and formal science make up the fundamental sciences, which form the basis of interdisciplinary and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine.
Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises.

Contents
1 Formal sciences
1.1 Decision theory
1.2 Logic
1.3 Mathematics
1.4 Statistics
1.5 Systems theory
1.6 Theoretical computer science
2 Natural/Pure Science
2.1 Physical science
2.1.1 Physics
2.1.2 Chemistry
2.1.3 Earth science
2.1.4 Space Science or Astronomy
2.2 Science of living things
2.2.1 Biology
3 Social sciences
4 Applied sciences

For more information, see Branches of science .
Index of branches of science From Wikipedia:
Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.

Modern science is typically divided into three major branches that consist of the natural sciences (e.g. biology, chemistry, physics), which study nature in the broadest sense; the social sciences (e.g. psychology, sociology, economics) which study people and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g. mathematics, logic, theoretical computer science), which study abstract concepts.
There is disagreement, however, on the formal sciences being a science as they do not rely on empirical evidence.
Disciplines that use science, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences.

For more information, see Index of branches of science .
Natural science From Wikipedia:
Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation.
Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances.

Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science (or biological science) and physical science.
Physical science is subdivided into branches, including physics, chemistry, astronomy and Earth science.
These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields).
As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements which can be explained as clear statements of the "laws of nature".

Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy, usually traced to ancient Greece. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches which were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way.
Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.
Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on.
Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.

Contents
1 Criteria
2 Branches of natural science
2.1 Biology
2.2 Chemistry
2.3 Physics
2.3.1 Astronomy
3 Interdisciplinary studies
3.1 Earth science
3.1.1 Atmospheric sciences
3.1.2 Oceanography
3.2 Materials sciencev 4 History
4.1 Aristotelian natural philosophy (400 BC–1100 AD)
4.2 Medieval natural philosophy (1100–1600)
4.3 Newton and the scientific revolution (1600–1800)
4.4 19th-century developments (1800–1900)
4.5 Modern natural science (1900–present)

For more information, see Natural science .
Outline of natural science From Wikipedia:
Natural science – a major branch of science that tries to explain, and predict, nature's phenomena based on empirical evidence.
In natural science, hypothesis must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory.
Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the criteria and methods used for this purpose.
Natural science can be broken into 2 main branches: life science, and physical science.
Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as natural sciences.

Contents
1 What type of thing is natural science?
2 Branches of natural science
2.1 Physical science
2.1.1 Astronomy
2.1.2 Physics
2.1.3 Chemistry
2.1.4 Earth Science
2.2 Life Science
2.2.1 Biology
3 History of natural science
3.1 History of the branches of natural science
4 General natural science concepts
5 Natural science organizations
6 Natural science publications
7 Persons influential in natural science

For more information, see Outline of natural science .
Social science From Wikipedia:
Social science is a category of academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society.
The disciplines include, but are not limited to: anthropology, archaeology, communication studies, economics, folkloristics, history, musicology, human geography, jurisprudence, linguistics, political science, psychology, public health, and sociology.
The term is also sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 19th century.
For a more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the social sciences see: Outline of social science.

Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense.
Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense.
In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining both quantitative and qualitative research).
The term "social research" has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods.

Contents
1 History
2 Branches
2.1 Anthropology
2.2 Communication studies
2.3 Economics
2.4 Education
2.5 Geography
2.6 History
2.7 Law
2.8 Linguistics
2.9 Political science
2.10 Psychology
2.11 Sociology
3 Additional fields of study
4 Methodology
4.1 Social research
4.2 Theory
5 Education and degrees

For more information, see Social science .
Outline of social science From Wikipedia:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to social science:

Social science – branch of science concerned with society and human behaviors.

Contents
1 What type of thing is social science?
2 Branches of social science
3 History of social science
4 Education and degrees
5 General social science concepts
6 Social science organizations
7 Social science publications
8 Social scientists

For more information, see Outline of social science .
Formal science From Wikipedia:
Formal science is a branch of science studying formal language disciplines concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, information theory, game theory, systems theory, decision theory, and theoretical linguistics.
Whereas the natural sciences and social sciences seek to characterize physical systems and social systems, respectively, using empirical methods, the formal sciences are language tools concerned with characterizing abstract structures described by symbolic systems.
The formal sciences aid the natural and social sciences by providing information about the structures the latter use to describe the world, and what inferences may be made about them.

Contents
1 History
2 Branches
3 Differences from other forms of science

For more information, see Formal science .
Outline of formal science From Wikipedia:
Formal science – branches of knowledge that are concerned with formal systems, such as those under the branches of: logic, mathematics, computer science, statistics, and some aspects of linguistics.
Unlike other sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world, but instead with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules.

Contents
1 Branches of formal science
1.1 Logic
1.2 Mathematics
1.3 Statistics
1.4 Systems science
1.5 Computer science

For more information, see Outline of formal science .
Applied science From Wikipedia:
Applied science is the application of existing scientific knowledge to practical applications, like technology or inventions.

Within natural science, disciplines that are basic science, also called pure science, develop basic information to predict and perhaps explain and understand phenomena in the natural world.
Applied science is the use of scientific processes and knowledge as the means to achieve a particular practical or useful result.
This includes a broad range of applied science related fields from engineering, medicine to early childhood education.

Applied science can also apply formal science, such as statistics and probability theory, as in epidemiology.
Genetic epidemiology is an applied science applying both biological and statistical methods.

Contents
1 Applied research
2 Branches of applied science
3 In education

For more information, see Applied science .
Outline of applied science From Wikipedia:
Applied science – the branch of science that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications, including inventions and other technological advancements.
Science itself is the systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.

Contents
1 Branches of applied science
2 History of applied science
3 Applied science education
4 Applied science organizations
5 Applied science publications

For more information, see Outline of applied science .
Research From Wikipedia:
Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications."
It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories.
A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field.
Research projects can be used to develop further knowledge on a topic, or in the example of a school research project, they can be used to further a student's research prowess to prepare them for future jobs or reports.
To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.
The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge.
Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences.
There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc.
The scientific study of research practices is known as meta-research.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Definitions
3 Forms of research
3.1 Scientific research
3.2 Historical research
3.3 Artistic research
3.4 Documentary research
4 Steps in conducting research
5 Research methods
6 Research ethics
7 Problems in research
7.1 Meta-research
7.2 Methods of research
7.3 Linguicism
7.4 Publication peer review
7.5 Influence of the open-access movement
7.6 Future perspectives
8 Professionalisation
8.1 In Russia
9 Publishing
10 Research funding

For more information, see Research .
Scientist From Wikipedia:
A scientist is someone who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.

In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist.
Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosophical study of nature called natural philosophy, a precursor of natural science.
It was not until the 19th century that the term scientist came into regular use after it was coined by the theologian, philosopher, and historian of science William Whewell in 1833, to describe the noted polymath Mary Somerville.

In modern times, many scientists have advanced degrees in an area of science and pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit environments.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Classical antiquity
1.2 Middle Ages
1.3 Renaissance
1.4 Age of Enlightenment
1.5 19th century
1.6 20th century
2 Profession
2.1 Education
2.2 Career
2.2.1 Research interests
2.3 By specialization
2.3.1 Natural science
2.3.1.1 Physical science
2.3.1.2 Life science
2.3.2 Social science
2.3.3 Formal science
2.3.4 Applied
2.3.5 Interdisciplinary
2.4 By employer
3 Demography
3.1 By country
3.1.1 United States
3.2 By gender

For more information, see Scientist .
Scientific method From Wikipedia:
The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century.
It involves careful observation, applying rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one interprets the observation.
It involves formulating hypotheses, via induction, based on such observations; experimental and measurement-based testing of deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the experimental findings.
These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises.

Though diverse models for the scientific method are available, there is in general a continuous process that includes observations about the natural world.
People are naturally inquisitive, so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear, and they often develop ideas or hypotheses about why things are the way they are.
The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways.
The most conclusive testing of hypotheses comes from reasoning based on carefully controlled experimental data.
Depending on how well additional tests match the predictions, the original hypothesis may require refinement, alteration, expansion or even rejection.
If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported, a general theory may be developed.

Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, they are frequently the same from one to another.
The process of the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions.
A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question.
The hypothesis might be very specific, or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies.
A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested.

The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis.
Experiments can take place anywhere from a garage to CERN's Large Hadron Collider.
There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however.
Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a set of general principles.
Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same degree), and they are not always in the same order.

Contents
1 History
2 Overview
2.1 Process
2.2 DNA example
2.3 Other components
3 Scientific inquiry
3.1 Properties of scientific inquiry
3.2 Beliefs and biases
4 Elements of the scientific method
4.1 Characterizations
4.2 Hypothesis development
4.3 Predictions from the hypothesis
4.4 Experiments
4.5 Evaluation and improvement
4.6 Confirmation
5 Models of scientific inquiry
5.1 Classical model
5.2 Hypothetico-deductive model
5.3 Pragmatic model
6 Science of complex systems
7 Communication and community
7.1 Peer review evaluation
7.2 Documentation and replication
7.3 Dimensions of practice
8 Philosophy and sociology of science
8.1 Analytical philosophy
8.2 Post-modernism and science wars
8.3 Anthropology
8.4 Role of chance in discovery
9 Relationship with mathematics
9.1 Relationship with statistics
10 See also
10.1 Problems and issues
10.2 History, philosophy, sociology

For more information, see Scientific method .
Scientific community From Wikipedia:
The scientific community is a diverse network of interacting scientists.
It includes many "sub-communities" working on particular scientific fields, and within particular institutions; interdisciplinary and cross-institutional activities are also significant.
Objectivity is expected to be achieved by the scientific method.
Peer review, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, assists in this objectivity by maintaining the quality of research methodology and interpretation of results.

Contents
1 History of scientific communities
2 Membership, status and interactions
3 Speaking for the scientific community
3.1 Political controversies

For more information, see Scientific community .
Scientific literature From Wikipedia:
Scientific literature comprises scholarly publications that report original empirical and theoretical work in the natural and social sciences, and within an academic field, often abbreviated as the literature.
Academic publishing is the process of contributing the results of one's research into the literature, which often requires a peer-review process.
Original scientific research published for the first time in scientific journals is called the primary literature.
Patents and technical reports, for minor research results and engineering and design work (including computer software), can also be considered primary literature.
Secondary sources include review articles (which summarize the findings of published studies to highlight advances and new lines of research) and books (for large projects or broad arguments, including compilations of articles).
Tertiary sources might include encyclopedias and similar works intended for broad public consumption.

Contents
1 Types of scientific publications
1.1 Scientific papers and articles
2 Scientific article
2.1 Preparation
2.2 Language
2.3 Structure and style
3 Peer review
4 Ethics
5 History

For more information, see Scientific literature .
Science policy From Wikipedia:
Science policy is concerned with the allocation of resources for the conduct of science towards the goal of best serving the public interest.
Topics include the funding of science, the careers of scientists, and the translation of scientific discoveries into technological innovation to promote commercial product development, competitiveness, economic growth and economic development.
Science policy focuses on knowledge production and role of knowledge networks, collaborations and the complex distributions of expertise, equipment and know-how.
Understanding the processes and organizational context of generating novel and innovative science and engineering ideas is a core concern of science policy.
Science policy topics include weapons development, health care and environmental monitoring.

Science policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve science.
A large and complex web of factors influences the development of science and engineering that includes government science policy makers, private firms (including both national and multi-national firms), social movements, media, non-governmental organizations, universities, and other research institutions.
In addition, science policy is increasingly international as defined by the global operations of firms and research institutions as well as by the collaborative networks of non-governmental organizations and of the nature of scientific inquiry itself.

Contents
1 History
2 Philosophies of science policy
2.1 Basic versus applied research
2.2 Utilitarian versus monumental science policy
2.3 Scholastic conservation
3 By country
3.1 Australia
3.2 Canada
3.3 Brazil
3.4 European Union
3.5 Germany
3.6 India
3.7 Ireland
3.8 The Netherlands
3.9 Pakistan
3.10 Russia
3.11 Switzerland
3.12 United Kingdom
3.13 United States

For more information, see Science policy .
Funding of science From Wikipedia:
Research funding is a term generally covering any funding for scientific research, in the areas of both "hard" science and technology and social science.
The term often connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding.
Such processes, which are run by government, corporations or foundations, allocate scarce funds.

Most research funding comes from two major sources, corporations (through research and development departments) and government (primarily carried out through universities and specialized government agencies; often known as research councils).
Some small amounts of scientific research are carried out (or funded) by charitable foundations, especially in relation to developing cures for diseases such as cancer, malaria and AIDS.

According to OECD, more than 60% of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industries, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government.

Comparatively, in countries with less GDP, such as Portugal and Mexico the industry contribution is significantly lower.
The US government spends more than other countries on military R&D, although the proportion has fallen from around 30% in the 1980s to under 20.
Government funding for medical research amounts to approximately 36% in the U.S.
The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities.
Similarly, with some exceptions (e.g. biotechnology) government provides the bulk of the funds for basic scientific research.
In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialization possibilities rather than "blue-sky" ideas or technologies (such as nuclear fusion).

Contents
1 History
2 By country
2.1 United States
2.2 Switzerland
3 Process
3.1 Public funding
3.1.1 List of research councils
3.2 Private funding
3.3 Hard money versus soft money
4 Influence on research
5 Efficiency of funding

For more information, see Funding of science .
Public awareness of science From Wikipedia:
Public awareness of science (PAwS), public understanding of science (PUS), or more recently, public engagement with science and technology (PEST) are terms relating to the attitudes, behaviours, opinions, and activities that comprise the relations between the general public or lay society as a whole to scientific knowledge and organisation.
It is a comparatively new approach to the task of exploring the multitude of relations and linkages science, technology, and innovation have among the general public.
While earlier work in the discipline had focused on augmenting public knowledge of scientific topics, in line with the information deficit model of science communication, the discrediting of the model has led to an increased emphasis on how the public chooses to use scientific knowledge and on the development of interfaces to mediate between expert and lay understandings of an issue.

Contents
1 Major themes
2 The Bodmer report
3 The contextualist model
4 The deliberative turn
5 Measuring public understanding of science
5.1 1. Factual knowledge
5.1.1 Examples of measurement
5.1.2 Key assumptions
5.2 2. Self-reported knowledge, perceived knowledge, or perceived familiarity
5.2.1 Examples of measurement
5.2.2 Key assumptions
5.3 3. Structural knowledge
5.3.1 Examples of measurement
5.3.2 Key Assumptions
5.4 Mixed use of the three measures
6 Project examples

For more information, see Public awareness of science .
Politicization of science From Wikipedia:
The politicization of science is the manipulation of science for political gain.
It occurs when government, business, or advocacy groups use legal or economic pressure to influence the findings of scientific research or the way it is disseminated, reported or interpreted.
The politicization of science may also negatively affect academic and scientific freedom.
Historically, groups have conducted various campaigns to promote their interests in defiance of scientific consensus, and in an effort to manipulate public policy.

Contents
1 Overview
2 Politicization by advocacy groups
2.1 Global warming
2.2 Intelligent design
2.3 Tobacco and cancer
2.4 Eugenics
3 Government politicization
3.1 Soviet Union
3.2 United States
3.2.1 George W. Bush administration
3.2.1.1 Surgeon General
3.2.1.2 Food and Drug Administration
3.2.1.3 United States Department of the Interior
3.2.1.4 Climate Change
3.2.1.5 Waxman report
3.2.1.6 Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis
3.2.1.7 United States House Science Subcommittee on Oversight
3.2.2 Donald Trump administration
3.2.3 Dedications and holidays
4 Scholarly studies of the politics of science

For more information, see Politicization of science .
Criticism of science From Wikipedia:
Criticism of science addresses problems within science in order to improve science as a whole and its role in society.
Criticisms come from philosophy, from social movements like feminism, and from within science itself.

The emerging field of metascience seeks to increase the quality of and efficiency of scientific research by improving the scientific process.

Contents
1 Philosophical critiques
1.1 Epistemology
1.2 Ethics
2 Critiques from within science
2.1 Reproduciblity
2.2 Cognitive and publication biases
3 Feminist critiques
3.1 Language in science
4 Media and politics

For more information, see Criticism of science .
Outline of science From Wikipedia:
Science – the systematic effort of acquiring knowledge through observation or experimentation coupled with logic and reasoning to find out what can be proved or not proved—and the knowledge thus acquired.
The word "science" comes from the Latin word "scientia" meaning knowledge.
A practitioner of science is called a "scientist".
Modern science respects objective logical reasoning, and follows a set of core procedures or rules in order to determine the nature and underlying natural laws of the universe and everything in it.
Some scientists do not know of the rules themselves, but follow them through research policies.
These procedures are known as the scientific method.

Contents
1 Essence of science
2 Scientific method
3 Branches of science
3.1 Formal science
3.2 Natural science
3.3 Social science
3.4 Applied science
4 How scientific fields differ
5 Politics of science
6 History of science
6.1 By period
6.2 By field
6.3 By region
7 Philosophy of science
8 Scientific community
8.1 Scientific organizations
8.2 Scientists
9 Science education

For more information, see Outline of science .

For more information, see
Science .

From Wikipedia:
Technology ("science of craft", from Greek τέχνη, techne, "art, skill, cunning of hand"; and -λογία, -logia) is the sum of techniques, skills, methods, and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation.
Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, or it can be embedded in machines to allow for operation without detailed knowledge of their workings.
Systems (e. g. machines) applying technology by taking an input, changing it according to the system's use, and then producing an outcome are referred to as technology systems or technological systems.
...
Contents
1 Definition and usage
2 Science, engineering and technology
3 History
3.1 Paleolithic (2.5 Ma – 10 ka)
3.1.1 Stone tools
3.1.2 Fire
3.1.3 Clothing and shelter
3.2 Neolithic through classical antiquity (10 ka – 300 CE)
3.2.1 Metal tools
3.2.2 Energy and transport
3.2.3 Plumbing
3.3 Medieval and modern history (300 CE – present)
4 Philosophy
4.1 Technicism
4.2 Optimism
4.3 Skepticism and critics
4.4 Appropriate technology
4.5 Optimism and skepticism in the 21st century
4.6 Complex technological systems
5 Competitiveness
6 Other animal species
7 Future technology

Outline of technology From Wikipedia:
Technology – collection of tools, including machinery, modifications, arrangements and procedures used by humans.
Engineering is the discipline that seeks to study and design new technologies.
Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animal species' ability to control and adapt to their natural environments.

Contents
1 Components of technology
2 Branches of technology
3 Technology by region
4 History of technology
4.1 History of technology by period
4.1.1 Technological ages
4.2 Media about the history of technology
4.3 History of technology by region
4.4 History of technology by field
5 Hypothetical technology
6 Philosophy of technology
7 Management of technology
7.1 Advancement of technology
8 Politics of technology
9 Economics of technology
10 Technology education
11 Technology organizations
11.1 Science and technology think tanks
12 Technology media
12.1 Books on technology
12.2 Technology periodicals
12.3 Websites
12.4 Fictional technology
13 Persons influential in technology

For more information, see Outline of technology .
Branches of technology From Wikipedia:
Aerospace
Applied physics
Agriculture
Communication
Computing
Construction
Design
Electronics
Energy
Engineering
Firefighting
Forensic science
Health
Hydrology
Industry
Information science
Military science
Mining
Nanotechnology
Prehistoric technology
Sustainability
Transport

For more information, see Branches of technology .
Emerging technologies From Wikipedia:
Emerging technologies are technologies whose development, practical applications, or both are still largely unrealized, such that they are figuratively emerging into prominence from a background of nonexistence or obscurity.
These technologies are new, such as various applications of biotechnology including gene therapy (which date to circa 1990 but even today have large undeveloped potential).
Emerging technologies are often perceived as capable of changing the status quo.

Emerging technologies are characterized by radical novelty (in application even if not in origins), relatively fast growth, coherence, prominent impact, and uncertainty and ambiguity.
In other words, an emerging technology can be defined as "a radically novel and relatively fast growing technology characterised by a certain degree of coherence persisting over time and with the potential to exert a considerable impact on the socio-economic domain(s) which is observed in terms of the composition of actors, institutions and patterns of interactions among those, along with the associated knowledge production processes.
Its most prominent impact, however, lies in the future and so in the emergence phase is still somewhat uncertain and ambiguous."

Emerging technologies include a variety of technologies such as educational technology, information technology, nanotechnology, biotechnology, cognitive science, psychotechnology, robotics, and artificial intelligence.

New technological fields may result from the technological convergence of different systems evolving towards similar goals.
Convergence brings previously separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications) and video together so that they share resources and interact with each other, creating new efficiencies.

Emerging technologies are those technical innovations which represent progressive developments within a field for competitive advantage; converging technologies represent previously distinct fields which are in some way moving towards stronger inter-connection and similar goals.
However, the opinion on the degree of the impact, status and economic viability of several emerging and converging technologies varies.

Contents
1 History of emerging technologies
2 Emerging technology debates
3 Examples
3.1 Artificial intelligence
3.2 3D printing
3.3 Gene therapy
3.4 Cancer vaccines
3.5 In vitro meat
3.6 Nanotechnology
3.7 Robotics
3.8 Stem-cell therapy
3.9 Distributed ledger technology
3.10 Medical field advancements
4 Development of emerging technologies
4.1 Research and development
4.2 DARPA
4.3 Technology competitions and awards
5 Role of science fiction

For more information, see Emerging technologies .
List of emerging technologies From Wikipedia:
Emerging technologies are those technical innovations which represent progressive innovations within a field for competitive advantage.

Contents
1 Agriculture
2 Aviation
3 Construction
3.1 Architecture
4 Materials science
5 Optoelectronics
6 Electronics
7 Energy
8 Entertainment
9 IT and communications
10 Medical
10.1 Neuroscience
11 Military
12 Space
13 Robotics
14 Transport

For more information, see List of emerging technologies .
Technological change From Wikipedia:
Technological change (TC) or technological development, is the overall process of invention, innovation and diffusion of technology or processes.
In essence, technological change covers the invention of technologies (including processes) and their commercialization or release as open source via research and development (producing emerging technologies), the continual improvement of technologies (in which they often become less expensive), and the diffusion of technologies throughout industry or society (which sometimes involves disruption and convergence).
In short, technological change is based on both better and more technology.

Contents
1 Modeling technological change
1.1 Invention
1.2 Diffusion
2 Technological change as a social process
2.1 Elements of diffusion
2.2 Innovation
2.2.1 Communication channels
2.2.2 Social system
2.2.3 Time
3 Economics

For more information, see Technological change .
Hypothetical technology From Wikipedia:
Hypothetical technology is technology that does not exist yet, but that could exist in the future.
This article presents examples of technologies that have been hypothesized or proposed, but that have not been developed yet.

Contents
1 Artificial general intelligence
2 Mind uploading
3 Space flight
3.1 Space elevator
3.2 Rotating skyhook
3.3 Light sail

For more information, see Hypothetical technology .
Technological convergence From Wikipedia:
Technological convergence is a tendency for technologies that were originally quite unrelated to become more closely integrated and even unified as they develop and advance.
The concept is roughly analogous to convergent evolution in biological systems, such that (for example) the ancestors of whales became progressively more like fish in outward form and function, despite not being fish and not coming from a fish lineage.
In technological convergence, a cardinal example to convey the concept is that telephones, television, and computers began as separate and mostly unrelated technologies but have converged in many ways into interrelated parts of a telecommunication and media industry underpinned by common elements of digital electronics and software.

Contents
1 Definitions
2 Elements of Technology Convergence
3 History of media technological convergence
4 Converging technological fields
5 Converging science and technology fields
6 Examples of technology implications
7 Convergence in appliances
8 Convergence on the internet
9 Digital convergence
10 Convergence in the marketplace
11 Media convergence
11.1 Convergence culture
11.2 Cell phone convergence
11.3 Social movements
12 Examples in Regulation
12.1 Example: VoIP
12.2 Emerging trends in communications
13 Example: Messaging
14 Example: Mobile
15 Example: Multi-play in telecommunications
16 Example: Home network

For more information, see Technological convergence .
Politics of technology From Wikipedia:
AI takeover
Accelerating change
Format war
Information privacy
IT law
PEST analysis
Robot rights
Technological singularity
Technological sovereignty

For more information, see Politics of technology .
Economics of technology From Wikipedia:
Energy accounting
Nanosocialism
Post-scarcity economy
Technocracy
Technocapitalism
Technological diffusion
Technology acceptance model
Technology lifecycle
Technology transfer

For more information, see Economics of technology .
Technology studies From Wikipedia:
Technology society and life or technology and culture refers to dependency co-dependence, co-influence, and co-production of technology and society upon the other (technology upon culture, and vice versa).
This synergistic relationship occurred from the dawn of humankind, with the invention of simple tools and continues into modern technologies such as the printing press and computers.
The academic discipline studying the impacts of science, technology, and society, and vice versa is called science and technology studies.

Contents
1 Pre-historical
2 Modern examples and effects
3 Economics and technological development
3.1 Funding
3.1.1 Government funding for new technology
3.1.2 Private funding
3.2 Other economic considerations
4 Sociological factors and effects
4.1 Values
4.1.1 Institutions and groups
4.2 International
5 Environment
6 Construction and shaping
6.1 Choice
6.2 Autonomous technology
6.3 Government
7 Conclusion

For more information, see Technology studies .
Technology assessment From Wikipedia:
Technology assessment (TA, German: Technikfolgenabschätzung, French: évaluation des choix scientifiques et technologiques) is a scientific, interactive, and communicative process that aims to contribute to the formation of public and political opinion on societal aspects of science and technology.

Contents
1 General description
1.1 Forms and concepts of technology assessment
2 Technology assessment institutions around the world

For more information, see Technology assessment .
Technology forecasting From Wikipedia:
Technology forecasting attempts to predict the future characteristics of useful technological machines, procedures or techniques.

Contents
1 Important aspects
2 Rational and explicit methods
3 Methods
4 Combining forecasts
4.1 Reasons for combining forecasts
4.2 Trend curve and growth curves
4.3 Identification of consistent deviations
4.4 Forecasts of different technologies
5 Uses in manufacturing
6 Forecasting institutes

For more information, see Technology forecasting .
Philosophy of technology From Wikipedia:
The philosophy of technology is a sub-field of philosophy that studies the nature of technology and its social effects.

Philosophical discussion of questions relating to technology (or its Greek ancestor techne) dates back to the very dawn of Western philosophy.
The phrase "philosophy of technology" was first used in the late 19th century by German-born philosopher and geographer Ernst Kapp, who published a book titled "Grundlinien einer Philosophie der Technik".

Contents
1 History
1.1 Greek philosophy
1.2 Middle ages to 19th century
1.3 19th century
1.4 20th century to present
1.5 Technology and neutrality
2 See also

For more information, see Philosophy of technology .
Ethics of technology From Wikipedia:
Ethics in technology is a sub-field of ethics addressing the ethical questions specific to the Technology Age.
Some prominent works of philosopher Hans Jonas are devoted to ethics of technology.
The subject has also been explored, following the work of Mario Bunge, under the term technoethics.

Contents
1 Fundamental problems
2 Technoethics
3 Definitions
4 History of technoethics
4.1 Ethics theories
4.2 Historical framing of technology – four main periods
4.3 Significant technoethical developments in society
4.4 Technological consciousness
4.5 Misunderstandings of consciousness and technology
4.6 Ethical challenges
4.7 Current issues
4.7.1 Copyright
4.7.2 Cybercriminality
4.7.3 Privacy vs. security: Full-body airport scanners
4.7.4 Privacy and GPS technologies
4.7.5 Genetically modified organisms
4.7.6 Pregnancy screening technology
4.7.7 Citizen journalism
4.8 Recent developments
4.9 Future developments
4.9.1 UNESCO
4.9.2 User data
4.9.3 Drones
5 Areas of technoethical inquiry
5.1 Biotech ethics
5.2 Technoethics and cognition
5.3 Technoethics and society
5.4 Technofeminism
5.5 Information and communication technoethics
5.6 Educational and professional technoethics
5.7 Environmental and engineering technoethics
5.8 Technoethical assessment and design
6 Organizational technoethics
7 Key scholarly contributions

For more information, see Ethics of technology .
Theories of technology From Wikipedia:
Theories of technology attempt to explain the factors that shape technological innovation as well as the impact of technology on society and culture.
Most contemporary theories of technology reject two previous views: the linear model of technological innovation and technological determinism.
To challenge the linear model, today's theories of technology point to the historical evidence that technological innovation often gives rise to new scientific fields, and emphasizes the important role that social networks and cultural values play in shaping technological artifacts.
To challenge technological determinism, today's theories of technology emphasize the scope of technical choice, which is greater than most laypeople realize; as science and technology scholars like to say, "It could have been different."
For this reason, theorists who take these positions typically argue for greater public involvement in technological decision-making.

Contents
1 Social theories
1.1 Descriptive approaches
1.2 Critical approaches
1.3 Group Theories
1.4 Other Stances
2 Analytic theories

For more information, see Theories of technology .
Technology education From Wikipedia:
Technology education is the study of technology, in which students "learn about the processes and knowledge related to technology".
As a field of study, it covers the human ability to shape and change the physical world to meet needs, by manipulating materials and tools with techniques.
It addresses the disconnect between wide usage and the lack of knowledge about technical components of technologies used and how to fix them.
This emergent discipline seeks to contribute to the learners' overall scientific and technological literacy, and technacy (see https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/technacy).

Technology education should not be confused with educational technology. Educational technology focuses on a more narrow subset of technology use that revolves around the use of technology in and for education as opposed to technology education's focus on technology's use in general.

Contents
1 History
2 Current State of Technology Education

For more information, see Technology education .
Technological evolution From Wikipedia:
Technological evolution is a theory of radical transformation of society through technological development.
This theory originated with Czech philosopher Radovan Richta.

Contents
1 Theory of technological evolution
1.1 Development
1.2 Theoretical implications

For more information, see Technological evolution .
Accelerating change From Wikipedia:
In futures studies and the history of technology, accelerating change is a perceived increase in the rate of technological change throughout history, which may suggest faster and more profound change in the future and may or may not be accompanied by equally profound social and cultural change.

Contents
1 Early observations
2 Moravec's Mind Children
3 James Burke's Connections
4 Gerald Hawkins' Mindsteps
5 Vinge's exponentially accelerating change
6 Kurzweil's The Law of Accelerating Returns
7 Limits of accelerating change
8 Knowledge Doubling Curve
9 Criticisms
10 Gallery

For more information, see Accelerating change .
Cultural lag From Wikipedia:
The term cultural lag refers to the notion that culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, and that social problems and conflicts are caused by this lag.
Subsequently, cultural lag does not only apply to this idea only, but also relates to theory and explanation.
It helps by identifying and explaining social problems to predict future problems.

As explained by James W. Woodward, when the material conditions change, changes are occasioned in the adaptive culture, but these changes in the adaptive culture do not synchronize exactly with the change in the material culture, this delay is the culture lag.
The term was coined by sociologist William F. Ogburn in his 1922 work Social change with respect to culture and original nature.
His theory of cultural lag suggests that a period of maladjustment occurs when the non-material culture is struggling to adapt to new material conditions.
This resonates with ideas of technological determinism.
That is it can presuppose that technology has independent effects on society at large.
However it does not necessarily assign causality to technology.
Rather cultural lag focuses examination on the period of adjustment to new technologies.

According to Ogburn, cultural lag is a common societal phenomenon due to the tendency of material culture to evolve and change rapidly and voluminously while non-material culture tends to resist change and remain fixed for a far longer period of time.
Due to the opposing nature of these two aspects of culture, adaptation of new technology becomes rather difficult.
This distinction between material and non-material culture is also a contribution of Ogburn's 1922 work on social change.

Cultural lag creates problems for a society in a multitude of ways.
The issue of cultural lag tends to permeate any discussion in which the implementation of some new technology is a topic.
For example, the advent of stem cell research has given rise to many new, potentially beneficial medical technologies; however these new technologies have also raised serious ethical questions about the use of stem cells in medicine.
Cultural lag is seen as a critical ethical issue because failure to develop broad social consensus on appropriate applications of modern technology may lead to breakdowns in social solidarity and the rise of social conflict.

For more information, see Cultural lag .
Extropianism From Wikipedia:
Extropianism, also referred to as the philosophy of Extropy, is an "evolving framework of values and standards for continuously improving the human condition".
Extropians believe that advances in science and technology will some day let people live indefinitely.
An extropian may wish to contribute to this goal, e.g. by doing research and development or by volunteering to test new technology.

Originated by a set of principles developed by the philosopher Max More, The Principles of Extropy, extropian thinking places strong emphasis on rational thinking and on practical optimism.
According to More, these principles "do not specify particular beliefs, technologies, or policies".
Extropians share an optimistic view of the future, expecting considerable advances in computational power, life extension, nanotechnology and the like.
Many[quantify] extropians foresee the eventual realization of indefinite lifespans, and the recovery, thanks to future advances in biomedical technology or mind uploading, of those whose bodies/brains have been preserved by means of cryonics.

Contents
1 Extropy
2 The Extropy Institute
3 Extropism

For more information, see Extropianism .
Transhumanism From Wikipedia:
Transhumanism (abbreviated as H+ or h+) is an international philosophical movement that advocates for the transformation of the human condition by developing and making widely available sophisticated technologies to greatly enhance human intellect and physiology.

Transhumanist thinkers study the potential benefits and dangers of emerging technologies that could overcome fundamental human limitations as well as the ethical limitations of using such technologies.
The most common transhumanist thesis is that human beings may eventually be able to transform themselves into different beings with abilities so greatly expanded from the current condition as to merit the label of posthuman beings.

The contemporary meaning of the term "transhumanism" was foreshadowed by one of the first professors of futurology, FM-2030, who taught "new concepts of the human" at The New School in the 1960s, when he began to identify people who adopt technologies, lifestyles and worldviews "transitional" to posthumanity as "transhuman".
The assertion would lay the intellectual groundwork for the British philosopher Max More to begin articulating the principles of transhumanism as a futurist philosophy in 1990, and organizing in California an intelligentsia that has since grown into the worldwide transhumanist movement.

Influenced by seminal works of science fiction, the transhumanist vision of a transformed future humanity has attracted many supporters and detractors from a wide range of perspectives, including philosophy and religion.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Precursors of transhumanism
1.2 Early transhumanist thinking
1.3 Artificial intelligence and the technological singularity
1.4 Growth of transhumanism
2 Theory
2.1 Aims
2.2 Empathic fallibility and conversational consent
2.3 Ethics
2.4 Currents
2.5 Spirituality
3 Practice
3.1 Technologies of interest
4 Debate
4.1 Feasibility
4.2 Intrinsic immorality
4.3 Loss of human identity
4.4 Socioeconomic effects
4.4.1 Cultural aesthetics
4.5 Specter of coercive eugenicism
4.6 Existential risks
4.7 Authenticity of transhuman goals

For more information, see Transhumanism .
Criticism of technology From Wikipedia:
Criticism of technology is an analysis of adverse impacts of industrial and digital technologies.
It is argued that, in all advanced industrial societies (not necessarily only capitalist ones), technology becomes a means of domination, control, and exploitation, or more generally something which threatens the survival of humanity.
Some of the technology opposed by critics includes everyday household products, such as refrigerators, computers, and medication.

Contents
1 Overview

For more information, see Criticism of technology .
Neo-Luddism From Wikipedia:
Neo-Luddism or new Luddism is a philosophy opposing many forms of modern technology.
The word Luddite is generally used as a derogatory term applied to people showing technophobic leanings.
The name is based on the historical legacy of the English Luddites, who were active between 1811 and 1816.

Neo-Luddism is a leaderless movement of non-affiliated groups who resist modern technologies and dictate a return of some or all technologies to a more primitive level.
Neo-Luddites are characterized by one or more of the following practices: passively abandoning the use of technology, harming those who produce technology harmful to the environment, advocating simple living, or sabotaging technology.
The modern neo-Luddite movement has connections with the anti-globalization movement, anti-science movement, anarcho-primitivism, radical environmentalism, and deep ecology.

Neo-Luddism is based on the concern of the technological impact on individuals, their communities, and/or the environment, Neo-Luddism stipulates the use of the precautionary principle for all new technologies, insisting that technologies be proven safe before adoption, due to the unknown effects that new technologies might inspire.

Contents
1 Philosophy
1.1 Vision of the future without intervention
1.2 Types of intervention
2 Movement
2.1 Relationship to violence and vandalism
3 History
3.1 Origins of contemporary critiques of technology in literature

For more information, see Neo-Luddism .
Bioconservatism From Wikipedia:
Bioconservatism (a portmanteau of "biology" and "conservatism") is a stance of hesitancy and skepticism regarding radical technological advances, especially those that seek to modify or enhance the human condition.
Bioconservatism is characterized by a belief that technological trends in today's society risk compromising human dignity, and by opposition to movements and technologies including transhumanism, human genetic modification, "strong" artificial intelligence, and the technological singularity.
Many bioconservatives also oppose the use of technologies such as life extension and preimplantation genetic screening.

Bioconservatives range in political perspective from right-leaning religious and cultural conservatives to left-leaning environmentalists and technology critics.
What unifies bioconservatives is skepticism about medical and other biotechnological transformations of the living world.
Typically less sweeping as a critique of technological society than bioluddism, the bioconservative perspective is characterized by its defense of the natural, deployed as a moral category.

Contents
1 Philosophical arguments for bioconservatism
1.1 Michael Sandel's arguments
1.1.1 Humility
1.1.2 Responsibility
1.1.3 Solidarity
1.2 Leon Kass' arguments
1.2.1 The problematic attitude of biotechnological enhancement
1.2.2 'Unnatural' means of biotechnological enhancement
1.2.3 'Dubious' ends of biotechnological enhancement
1.3 Jürgen Habermas's arguments
1.3.1 Violation of ethical freedom
1.3.2 Asymmetrical relationships
2 Criticism
2.1 Nick Bostrom on posthuman dignity
2.1.1 Hans Jonas on reproductive freedom
3 Notable bioconservatives

For more information, see Bioconservatism .

For more information, see
Technology .

From Wikipedia:
Culture (/ˈkʌltʃər/) is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities and habits of the individuals in these groups.

Humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies.

A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.
Accepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change.
Thus in military culture, valor is counted an ideal behavior for an individual, as are duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues, or functional responses in the continuum of conflict.
In the practice of religion, analogous virtues can be identified in a social group.

Contents
1 Description
2 Etymology
3 Change
4 Early modern discourses
4.1 German Romanticism
4.2 English Romanticism
5 Anthropology
6 Sociology
6.1 Early researchers and development of cultural sociology
7 Cultural studies
8 Psychology

Outline of culture From Wikipedia:
Culture – set of patterns of human activity within a community or social group and the symbolic structures that give significance to such activity.
Customs, laws, dress, architectural style, social standards, religious beliefs, and traditions are all examples of cultural elements.
Since 2010, Culture is considered the Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development by UNESCO.
More: Agenda 21 for Culture or in short Culture 21.

Contents
1 Cultural groups
2 Elements of culture
3 Types of cultures
4 Academic disciplines that study culture
5 Cultures of the world
6 History of culture
7 Politics of culture
8 Sociology of culture
9 Research fields

For more information, see Outline of culture .
Cultural area From Wikipedia:
In anthropology and geography, a cultural region, cultural sphere, cultural area or culture area refers to a geography with one relatively homogeneous human activity or complex of activities (culture).
These are often associated with an ethnolinguistic group and the territory it inhabits.
Specific cultures often do not limit their geographic coverage to the borders of a nation state, or to smaller subdivisions of a state.
Cultural "spheres of influence" may also overlap or form concentric structures of macrocultures encompassing smaller local cultures.
Different boundaries may also be drawn depending on the particular aspect of interest, such as religion and folklore vs. dress and architecture vs. language.

Cultural areas are not considered equivalent to Kulturkreis (Culture circles).

Contents
1 History of concept
2 Types
3 Cultural boundary
4 Role in conflict
5 Examples
5.1 Music

For more information, see Cultural area .
Book:Culture From Wikipedia:
Culture

Main article
Culture

History
Cultural history

Cultures of the world
Cultural area

Basic concepts
Bandwagon effect
Counterculture
Cross-cultural communication
Cultural bias
Cultural dissonance
Sociocultural evolution
Cultural imperialism
Culture theory
Cultural universal
Culture war
Demography
Social fact
Emotions and culture
Ethnic group
Ethnocentrism
Folk culturev Low culture
High culture
Intercultural competence
Organizational culture
Popular culture
Subculture
Urban culture

For more information, see Book:Culture .

For more information, see
Culture .

From Wikipedia:
Everyday life, daily life or routine life comprises the ways in which people typically act, think, and feel on a daily basis.
Everyday life may be described as mundane, routine, natural, habitual, or normal.

Human diurnality means most people sleep at least part of the night and are active in daytime.
Most eat two or three meals in a day.
Working time (apart from shift work) mostly involves a daily schedule, beginning in the morning.
This produces the daily rush hours experienced by many millions, and the drive time focused on by radio broadcasters.
Evening is often leisure time. Bathing every day is a custom for many.

Beyond these broad similarities, lifestyles vary and different people spend their days differently.
Nomadic life differs from sedentism, and among the sedentary, urban people live differently from rural folk.
Differences in the lives of the rich and the poor, or between factory workers and intellectuals, may go beyond their working hours.
Many women spend their day in activities greatly different from those of men, and everywhere children do different things than adults.

Contents
1 Sociological perspectives
2 Leisure
3 Language
4 Activities of daily living

Working time From Wikipedia:
Working time is the period of time that a person spends at paid labor.
Unpaid labor such as personal housework or caring for children or pets is not considered part of the working week.

Many countries regulate the work week by law, such as stipulating minimum daily rest periods, annual holidays, and a maximum number of working hours per week.
Working time may vary from person to person, often depending on economic conditions, location, culture, lifestyle choice, and the profitability of the individual's livelihood.
For example, someone who is supporting children and paying a large mortgage might need to work more hours to meet basic costs of living than someone of the same earning power with lower housing costs.
In developed countries like the United Kingdom, some workers are part-time because they are unable to find full-time work, but many choose reduced work hours to care for children or other family; some choose it simply to increase leisure time.

Standard working hours (or normal working hours) refers to the legislation to limit the working hours per day, per week, per month or per year.
If an employee needs to work overtime, the employer will need to pay overtime payments to employees as required in the law.
Generally speaking, standard working hours of countries worldwide are around 40 to 44 hours per week (but not everywhere: from 35 hours per week in France to up to 112 hours per week in North Korean labor camps) and the additional overtime payments are around 25% to 50% above the normal hourly payments.
Maximum working hours refers to the maximum working hours of an employee.
The employee cannot work more than the level specified in the maximum working hours law.

Contents
1 Hunter-gatherer
2 History
2.1 Gradual decrease in working hours
3 Workweek structure
4 Average annual hours actually worked per worker
4.1 OECD ranking
4.2 Trends over time
5 Differences among countries and regions
5.1 European countries
5.2 South Korea
5.3 Japan
5.4 Mexico
5.5 Colombia
5.6 Spain
5.7 Australia
5.8 United States
5.9 Brazil
5.10 Mainland China
5.11 Hong Kong
5.12 Taiwan
5.13 Singapore
5.14 Other countries
6 Recent trends

For more information, see Working time .
Homemaking From Wikipedia:
Homemaking is a mainly American term for the management of a home, otherwise known as housework, housekeeping, or household management.
It is the act of overseeing the organizational, day-to-day operations of a house or estate, and the managing of other domestic concerns.
A person in charge of the homemaking, who is not employed outside the home, is in the United States is called a homemaker, a term for a housewife or a househusband.
The term "homemaker", however, may also refer to a social worker who manages a household during the incapacity of the housewife or househusband.

Housework is not always a lifetime commitment; many, for economic or personal reasons, return to the workplace.
In previous decades, there were a number of mandatory courses for the young to learn the skills of homemaking.
In high school, courses included cooking, nutrition, home economics, family and consumer science (FACS), and food and cooking hygiene. More recently, most of these courses have been abolished, and many youths in high school and college would likely study child development and the management of children's behavior.

Contents
1 Homemaking and marriage
1.1 19th century
1.2 20th century
1.3 21st century
2 Housekeeping
2.1 Cooking
2.2 Cleaning
2.3 Laundry
3 Maintenance
3.1 Home maintenance
3.2 Lawn maintenance
4 Management
4.1 House organization
4.1.1 De-cluttering
4.2 Household purchasing
4.3 Servants
5 Work strategies
6 Household production
7 Wages for housework
8 Effects of technology and advertising

For more information, see Homemaking .
Sleep From Wikipedia:
Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind and body, characterized by altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, reduced muscle activity and inhibition of nearly all voluntary muscles during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and reduced interactions with surroundings.
It is distinguished from wakefulness by a decreased ability to react to stimuli, but more reactive than coma or disorders of consciousness, with sleep displaying very different and active brain patterns.

Sleep occurs in repeating periods, in which the body alternates between two distinct modes: REM sleep and non-REM sleep.
Although REM stands for "rapid eye movement", this mode of sleep has many other aspects, including virtual paralysis of the body.
A well-known feature of sleep is the dream, an experience typically recounted in narrative form, which resembles waking life while in progress, but which usually can later be distinguished as fantasy.

During sleep, most of the body's systems are in an anabolic state, helping to restore the immune, nervous, skeletal, and muscular systems; these are vital processes that maintain mood, memory, and cognitive function, and play a large role in the function of the endocrine and immune systems.
The internal circadian clock promotes sleep daily at night.
The diverse purposes and mechanisms of sleep are the subject of substantial ongoing research.

Sleep is a highly conserved behavior across animal evolution.

Humans may suffer from various sleep disorders, including dyssomnias such as insomnia, hypersomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea; parasomnias such as sleepwalking and REM behavior disorder; bruxism; and circadian rhythm sleep disorders.
The advent of artificial light has substantially altered sleep timing in industrialized countries.

Contents
1 Physiology
1.1 Non-REM and REM sleep
1.2 Awakening
2 Timing
2.1 Circadian clock
2.2 Process S
2.3 Social timing
2.4 Distribution
2.4.1 Naps
2.5 Genetics
2.6 Quality
3 Ideal duration
3.1 Children
3.2 Recommendations
4 Functions
4.1 Restoration
4.2 Memory processing
4.3 Dreaming
5 Disorders
5.1 Insomnia
5.2 Obstructive sleep apnea
5.3 Aging and sleep
5.4 Other disorders
6 Drugs and diet
7 In culture
7.1 Anthropology
7.2 In mythology and literature
7.3 In art

For more information, see Sleep .
Exercise From Wikipedia:
Exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness.
It is performed for various reasons, to aid growth and improve strength, preventing aging, developing muscles and the cardiovascular system, honing athletic skills, weight loss or maintenance, improving health[2] and also for enjoyment.
Many individuals choose to exercise outdoors where they can congregate in groups, socialize, and enhance well-being.

Contents
1 Classification
2 Health effects
2.1 Fitness
2.2 Cardiovascular system
2.3 Immune system
2.4 Cancer
2.5 Neurobiological
2.6 Sleep
3 Mechanism of effects
3.1 Skeletal muscle
3.2 Other peripheral organs
3.3 Central nervous system
4 Public health measures
5 Exercise trends
5.1 Social and cultural variation
6 Nutrition and recovery
7 History
8 Other animals

For more information, see Exercise .
Hygiene From Wikipedia:
Hygiene is a series of practices performed to preserve health.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases."
Personal hygiene refers to maintaining the body's cleanliness.

Many people equate hygiene with 'cleanliness,' but hygiene is a broad term.
It includes such personal habit choices as how frequently to take a shower or bathe, wash hands, trim fingernails, and change and wash clothes.
It also includes attention to keeping surfaces in the home and workplace, including bathroom facilities, clean and pathogen-free.

Some regular hygiene practices may be considered good habits by a society, while the neglect of hygiene can be considered disgusting, disrespectful, or threatening.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Background
3 Medical hygiene
4 Home and everyday hygiene
4.1 Hand washing
4.2 Respiratory hygiene
4.3 Food hygiene at home
4.4 Hygiene in the kitchen, bathroom and toilet
4.5 Laundry hygiene
4.6 Medical hygiene at home
4.7 Disinfectants and antibacterials in home hygiene
4.8 Home hygiene in developing countries
5 Personal hygiene
5.1 Regular activities
5.2 Excessive body hygiene
5.3 Oral hygiene
6 Culinary (food) hygiene
7 Personal service hygiene
8 Sleep hygiene
9 History
9.1 Islamic world
9.2 Medieval Europe
10 Society and culture
10.1 Religious hygienic customs

For more information, see Hygiene .
Health care From Wikipedia:
Health care, health-care, or healthcare is the maintenance or improvement of health via the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people.
Health care is delivered by health professionals in allied health fields.
Physicians and physician associates are a part of these health professionals.
Dentistry, midwifery, nursing, medicine, optometry, audiology, pharmacy, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy and other health professions are all part of health care.
It includes work done in providing primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health.

Access to health care may vary across countries, communities, and individuals, largely influenced by social and economic conditions as well as health policies.
Providing health care services means "the timely use of personal health services to achieve the best possible health outcomes".
Factors to consider in terms of healthcare access include financial limitations (such as insurance coverage), geographic barriers (such as additional transportation costs, possibility to take paid time off of work to use such services), and personal limitations (lack of ability to communicate with healthcare providers, poor health literacy, low income).
Limitations to health care services affects negatively the use of medical services, efficacy of treatments, and overall outcome (well-being, mortality rates).

Health care systems are organizations established to meet the health needs of targeted populations.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a well-functioning health care system requires a financing mechanism, a well-trained and adequately paid workforce, reliable information on which to base decisions and policies, and well maintained health facilities to deliver quality medicines and technologies.

An efficient health care system can contribute to a significant part of a country's economy, development and industrialization.
Health care is conventionally regarded as an important determinant in promoting the general physical and mental health and well-being of people around the world.
An example of this was the worldwide eradication of smallpox in 1980, declared by the WHO as the first disease in human history to be completely eliminated by deliberate health care interventions.

Contents
1 Delivery
1.1 Primary care
1.2 Secondary care
1.3 Tertiary care
1.4 Quaternary care
1.5 Home and community care
1.6 Ratings
2 Related sectors
2.1 Health system
2.2 Health care industry
2.3 Health care research
2.4 Health care financing
2.5 Administration and regulation
2.6 Health information technology

For more information, see Health care .
School From Wikipedia:
A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students (or "pupils") under the direction of teachers.
Most countries have systems of formal education, which is commonly compulsory.
In these systems, students progress through a series of schools.
The names for these schools vary by country (discussed in the Regional section below) but generally include primary school for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education.
An institution where higher education is taught, is commonly called a university college or university, but these higher education institutions are usually not compulsory.

In addition to these core schools, students in a given country may also attend schools before and after primary (Elementary in the US) and secondary (Middle school in the US) education.
Kindergarten or preschool provide some schooling to very young children (typically ages 3–5).
University, vocational school, college or seminary may be available after secondary school.
A school may be dedicated to one particular field, such as a school of economics or a school of dance.
Alternative schools may provide nontraditional curriculum and methods.

There are also non-government schools, called private schools.
Private schools may be required when the government does not supply adequate, or special education.
Other private schools can also be religious, such as Christian schools, madrasa, hawzas (Shi'a schools), yeshivas (Jewish schools), and others; or schools that have a higher standard of education or seek to foster other personal achievements.
Schools for adults include institutions of corporate training, military education and training and business schools.

In home schooling and online schools, teaching and learning take place outside a traditional school building.
Schools are commonly organized in several different organizational models, including departmental, small learning communities, academies, integrated, and schools-within-a-school.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History and development
3 Regional terms
3.1 United Kingdom and Commonwealth of Nations
3.2 India
3.3 Europe
3.4 North America and the United States
3.5 Africa
4 Ownership and operation
4.1 Starting a school
5 Components of most schools
6 Security
7 Health services
8 Online schools and classes
9 Stress
10 Discipline towards students

For more information, see School .
Mealtimes From Wikipedia:
A meal is an eating occasion that takes place at a certain time and includes prepared food.
The names used for specific meals in English vary, depending on the speaker's culture, the time of day, or the size of the meal.

Meals occur primarily at homes, restaurants, and cafeterias, but may occur anywhere.
Regular meals occur on a daily basis, typically several times a day.
Special meals are usually held in conjunction with such occasions as birthdays, weddings, anniversaries, and holidays.
A meal is different from a snack in that meals are generally larger, more varied, and more filling than snacks.

The type of meal served or eaten at any given time varies by custom and location.
In most modern cultures, three main meals are eaten: in the morning, early afternoon, and evening.
Further, the names of meals are often interchangeable by custom as well.
Some serve dinner as the main meal at midday, with supper as the late afternoon/early evening meal; while others may call their midday meal lunch and their early evening meal supper.
Except for "breakfast", these names can vary from region to region or even from family to family.

Contents
1 Breakfast
1.1 Variations of breakfast
1.1.1 Full breakfast
1.1.2 Instant breakfast
1.1.3 Champagne breakfast
2 Lunch
2.1 Variations of lunch
3 Dinner
3.1 Variations of dinner
3.1.1 Full course dinner
4 Meals at other times of the day
5 Meal preparation
5.1 Food preparation
5.1.1 Cooking
6 Eating the meal

For more information, see Mealtimes .
Family From Wikipedia:
In the context of human society, a family (from Latin: familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth), affinity (by marriage or other relationship), or co-residence (as implied by the etymology of the English word "family") or some combination of these.
The purpose of families is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society.
Ideally, families would offer predictability, structure, and safety as members mature and participate in the community.
In most societies, it is within families children acquire socialization for life outside the family.
Additionally, as the basic unit for meeting the basic needs of its members, it provides a sense of boundaries for performing tasks in a heterosexual environment, ideally builds a person into a functional adult, transmits culture, and ensures continuity of humankind with precedents of knowledge.

Anthropologists generally classify most family organizations as matrifocal (a mother and her children); conjugal (a wife, her husband, and children, also called the nuclear family); avuncular (for example, a grandparent, a brother, his sister, and her children); or extended (parents and children co-reside with other members of one parent's family).

Members of the immediate family may include spouses, parents, grandparents, brothers, sisters, sons, and daughters.
Members of the extended family may include aunts, uncles, cousins, nephews, nieces, and siblings-in-law.
Sometimes these are also considered members of the immediate family, depending on an individual's specific relationship with them.
Sexual relations among the members are regulated by rules concerning incest such as the incest taboo.

The word "families" can be used metaphorically to create more inclusive categories such as community, nationhood, global village, and humanism.

The field of genealogy aims to trace family lineages through history.

The family is also an important economic unit studied in family economics.

Contents
1 Social
1.1 Size
2 Types of family
2.1 Conjugal (nuclear) family
2.2 Single-parent family
2.3 Matrifocal family
2.4 Extended family
2.5 Family of choice
2.6 Blended family
2.7 Monogamous family
2.8 Polygamous family
3 Kinship terminology
3.1 Degrees of kinship
3.2 Terminologies
4 Roles
5 Types of kinship
5.1 Patrilineal
5.2 Matrilineal
5.3 Bilateral descent
6 History of theories
6.1 The nuclear family in industrial society
6.2 The postmodern family
6.3 Oedipal family model and fascism
7 Domestic violence
7.1 Family violence
7.2 Forced and child marriage
8 The concept of family honor
9 Economic issues
9.1 Dowry, bride price and dower
9.2 Property regimes and taxation
10 Rights and laws
10.1 Reproductive rights
10.2 Parents' rights
10.3 Children's rights
10.4 Marriage rights
10.5 Legal reforms
11 Health
11.1 Family medicine
11.2 Maternal mortality
11.3 Infant and child mortality
12 Politics
13 Work-family balance
13.1 Protection of private and family life
14 Criticism
15 The family and social justice
16 Global trends in family composition

For more information, see Family .
Parenting From Wikipedia:
Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood.
Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child and not exclusively for a biological relationship.

The most common caretaker in parenting is the father or mother, or both, biological parent(s) of the child in question, although a surrogate may be an older sibling, a grandparent, a legal guardian, aunt, uncle or other family member, or a family friend.
Governments and society may also have a role in child-rearing.
In many cases, orphaned or abandoned children receive parental care from non-parent or non-blood relations.
Others may be adopted, raised in foster care, or placed in an orphanage.
Parenting skills vary, and a parent or surrogate with good parenting skills may be referred to as a good parent.

Parenting styles vary by historical time period, race/ethnicity, social class, and other social features.
Additionally, research supports that parental history both in terms of attachments of varying quality as well as parental psychopathology, particularly in the wake of adverse experiences, can strongly influence parental sensitivity and child outcomes.

Contents
1 Factors that affect decisions
2 Styles
3 Practices
3.1 Skills
3.2 Cultural Values
3.3 Cultural Tools
3.3.1 Indigenous American cultures
4 Across the lifespan
4.1 Pre-pregnancy
4.2 Pregnancy and prenatal parenting
4.3 Newborns and infants
4.4 Toddlers
4.5 Child
4.6 Adolescents
4.7 Adults
5 Assistance
6 Childbearing and happiness

For more information, see Parenting .
Leisure From Wikipedia:
Leisure has often been defined as a quality of experience or as free time.
Free time is time spent away from business, work, job hunting, domestic chores, and education, as well as necessary activities such as eating and sleeping.
Situationist International proposes that leisure does not evolve from free time, and free-time is an illusory concept that is rarely fully "free"; economic and social forces appropriate free time from the individual and sell it back to them as the commodity known as "leisure".
Certainly most people's leisure activities are not a completely free choice and may be constrained by social pressures, e.g. people may be coerced into spending time gardening by the need to keep up with the standard of neighbouring gardens or go to a party because of social pressures.

Leisure as experience usually emphasizes dimensions of perceived freedom and choice.
It is done for "its own sake", for the quality of experience and involvement.
Other classic definitions include Thorsten Veblen's (1899) of "nonproductive consumption of time."
Different disciplines have definitions reflecting their common issues: for example, sociology on social forces and contexts and psychology as mental and emotional states and conditions.
From a research perspective, these approaches have an advantage of being quantifiable and comparable over time and place.

Leisure studies and sociology of leisure are the academic disciplines concerned with the study and analysis of leisure.
Research has shown that practicing creative leisure activities is interrelated with the emotional creativity.
Recreation differs from leisure in that it is a purposeful activity that includes the experience of leisure in activity contexts.
Economists consider that leisure times are valuable to a person like wages that they could earn for the same time spend towards the activity.
If it were not, people would have worked instead of taking leisure.
However, the distinction between leisure and unavoidable activities is not a rigidly defined one, e.g. people sometimes do work-oriented tasks for pleasure as well as for long-term utility.
A related concept is social leisure, which involves leisurely activities in social settings, such as extracurricular activities, e.g. sports, clubs. Another related concept is that of family leisure.
Relationships with others is usually a major factor in both satisfaction and choice.

The concept of leisure as a human right was realised in article 24 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Contents
1 History of leisure
1.1 Canada
1.2 France
1.3 United Kingdom
2 Types
2.1 Serious leisure
2.1.1 Reading
2.2 Casual leisure
2.3 Project-based leisure
3 Cultural differences
4 Family leisurev 5 Aging

For more information, see Leisure .
Entertainment From Wikipedia:
Entertainment is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience, or gives pleasure and delight.
It can be an idea or a task, but is more likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audience's attention.
Although people's attention is held by different things, because individuals have different preferences in entertainment, most forms are recognisable and familiar.
Storytelling, music, drama, dance, and different kinds of performance exist in all cultures, were supported in royal courts, developed into sophisticated forms and over time became available to all citizens.
The process has been accelerated in modern times by an entertainment industry that records and sells entertainment products.
Entertainment evolves and can be adapted to suit any scale, ranging from an individual who chooses a private entertainment from a now enormous array of pre-recorded products; to a banquet adapted for two; to any size or type of party, with appropriate music and dance; to performances intended for thousands; and even for a global audience.

The experience of being entertained has come to be strongly associated with amusement, so that one common understanding of the idea is fun and laughter, although many entertainments have a serious purpose.
This may be the case in the various forms of ceremony, celebration, religious festival, or satire for example.
Hence, there is the possibility that what appears as entertainment may also be a means of achieving insight or intellectual growth.

An important aspect of entertainment is the audience, which turns a private recreation or leisure activity into entertainment.
The audience may have a passive role, as in the case of persons watching a play, opera, television show, or film; or the audience role may be active, as in the case of games, where the participant/audience roles may be routinely reversed.
Entertainment can be public or private, involving formal, scripted performance, as in the case of theatre or concerts; or unscripted and spontaneous, as in the case of children's games.
Most forms of entertainment have persisted over many centuries, evolving due to changes in culture, technology, and fashion for example with stage magic.
Films and video games, for example, although they use newer media, continue to tell stories, present drama, and play music.
Festivals devoted to music, film, or dance allow audiences to be entertained over a number of consecutive days.

Some entertainment, such as public executions, are now illegal in most countries.
Activities such as fencing or archery, once used in hunting or war, have become spectator sports.
In the same way, other activities, such as cooking, have developed into performances among professionals, staged as global competitions and then broadcast for entertainment.
What is entertainment for one group or individual may be regarded as work or an act of cruelty by another.

The familiar forms of entertainment have the capacity to cross over different media and have demonstrated a seemingly unlimited potential for creative remix.
This has ensured the continuity and longevity of many themes, images, and structures.

Contents
1 Psychology and philosophy
2 History
2.1 Court entertainment
2.2 Public punishment
3 Children
4 Forms
4.1 Banquets
4.2 Music
4.3 Games
4.4 Reading
4.5 Comedy
4.6 Performance
4.6.1 Storytelling
4.6.2 Theatre
4.6.3 Cinema and film
4.6.4 Dance
4.6.5 Animals
4.6.6 Circus
4.6.7 Magic
4.6.8 Street performance
4.6.9 Parades
4.6.10 Fireworks
4.7 Sport
4.8 Fairs, expositions, shopping
5 Safety
6 Industry
7 Architecture
7.1 Architecture for entertainment
7.2 Architecture as entertainment
8 Effects of developments in electronic media
8.1 Globalisation
8.2 Obsolescence
8.3 Convergence

For more information, see Entertainment .
Shopping From Wikipedia:
Shopping is an activity in which a customer browses the available goods or services presented by one or more retailers with the potential intent to purchase a suitable selection of them.
A typology of shopper types has been developed by scholars which identifies one group of shoppers as recreational shoppers,[1] that is, those who enjoy shopping and view it as a leisure activity.

Online shopping has become a major disruptor in the retail industry.
Consumers can now search for product information and place product orders across different regions while online retailers deliver their products directly to the consumers' home, offices or wherever they want.
The B2C (business to consumer) process has made it easy for consumers to select any product online from a retailer's website and to have it delivered relatively quickly.
Using online shopping methods, consumers do not need to consume energy by physically visiting physical stores, but save time and the cost of travelling.
A retailer or a shop is a business that presents a selection of goods and offers to trade or sell them to customers for money or other goods.

Shoppers' shopping experiences may vary, based on a variety of factors including how the customer is treated, convenience, the type of goods being purchased, and mood.

According to a 2000 report, in New York State, women purchase 80% of all consumer goods.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Antiquity
1.2 Middle Ages
1.3 Shopping for pleasure
1.4 Evolution of stores: from arcades to department stores
2 Shopping venues
2.1 Shopping hubs
2.2 Stores
2.2.1 Home shopping
2.2.2 Neighborhood shopping
2.2.3 Party shopping
3 Shopping activity
3.1 Shopping seasons
4 Pricing and negotiation
4.1 "Window shopping"
5 Utility cycling

For more information, see Shopping .
Religious practice From Wikipedia:
Religion is a social-cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that relates humanity to supernatural, transcendental, or spiritual elements.
However, there is no scholarly consensus over what precisely constitutes a religion.

Different religions may or may not contain various elements ranging from the divine, sacred things,[4] faith, a supernatural being or supernatural beings or "some sort of ultimacy and transcendence that will provide norms and power for the rest of life".
Religious practices may include rituals, sermons, commemoration or veneration (of deities), sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trances, initiations, funerary services, matrimonial services, meditation, prayer, music, art, dance, public service, or other aspects of human culture.
Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to give a meaning to life.
Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are sometimes said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life, the universe, and other things.
Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has been considered a source of religious beliefs.

There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide,[9] but about 84% of the world's population is affiliated with one of the five largest religion groups, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion.
The religiously unaffiliated demographic includes those who do not identify with any particular religion, atheists, and agnostics.
While the religiously unaffiliated have grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs.

The study of religion encompasses a wide variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion and social scientific studies.
Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, including the ontological foundations of religious being and belief.

Contents
1 Concept and etymology
2 Definition
2.1 Modern Western
2.2 Classical
3 Aspects
3.1 Beliefs
3.1.1 Mythology
3.1.2 Worldview
3.2 Practices
3.3 Social organisation
4 Academic study
4.1 Theories
4.1.1 Origins and development
4.1.2 Cultural system
4.1.3 Social constructionism
4.1.4 Cognitive science
4.2 Comparativism
5 Classification
5.1 Morphological classification
5.2 Demographical classification
6 Specific religions
6.1 Abrahamic
6.1.1 Judaism
6.1.2 Christianity
6.1.3 Islamv 6.1.4 Other
6.2 East Asian
6.2.1 Taoism and Confucianism
6.2.2 Chinese folk religion
6.3 Dharmic (Indian)
6.3.1 Hinduism
6.3.2 Jainism
6.3.3 Buddhism
6.3.4 Sikhism
6.4 Indigenous and folk
6.5 Traditional African
6.6 Iranian
6.7 New religious movements
7 Related aspects
7.1 Law
7.2 Science
7.3 Morality
7.4 Politics
7.4.1 Impact
7.4.2 Secularism
7.5 Economics
7.6 Health
7.7 Violence
7.7.1 Animal sacrifice
7.8 Superstition
7.9 Agnosticism and atheism
7.10 Interfaith cooperation
7.11 Culture
8 Criticism

For more information, see Religious practice .

For more information, see
Everyday Life .

From Wikipedia:
Social issue

A social issue is a problem that influences many individuals within a society.
A social issue has many categories in depth as well as light.
It's a common problem we see happening in our society.
A social issue can be considered as a problem that influences many people and many peoples strive to solve the issue.
It is often the consequence of factors extending beyond an individual's control, and is the source of a conflicting opinion on the grounds of what is perceived as morally correct or incorrect personal life or Interpersonal social life.
Social issues are distinguished from economic issues; however, some issues (such as immigration) have both social and economic aspects. There are also issues that don't fall into either category, such as warfare.

There can be disagreements about what social issues are worth solving, or which should take precedence.
Different individuals and different societies have different perceptions.

In Rights of Man and Common Sense, Thomas Paine addresses individual's duty to "allow the same rights to others as we allow ourselves".
The failure to do so caused the birth of a social issue.

There are a variety of methods people use to combat social issues.
Some people vote for leaders in a democracy to advance their ideals.
Outside the political process, people donate or share their time, money, energy, or other resources.
This often takes the form of volunteering.
Nonprofit organizations are often formed for the sole purpose of solving a social issue.
Community organizing involves gathering people together for a common purpose.

A distinct but related meaning of the term "social issue" (used particularly in the United States) refers to topics of national political interest, over which the public is deeply divided and which are the subject of intense partisan advocacy, debate, and voting.
Examples include same-sex marriage and abortion.
In this case "social issue" does not necessarily refer to an ill to be solved, but rather to a topic to be discussed.

Contents
1 Personal issues
2 Valence issues versus position issues
3 Types
3.1 Social stratification
3.2 Economic issues
3.3 Social disorganization
3.4 Public health
3.5 Age and the life course
3.6 Social inequality
3.7 Education and public schools
3.8 Work and occupations
3.9 Environmental racism
3.10 Abortion
4 By country
4.1 Canada
4.1.1 Poverty
4.1.2 Racism and prejudice
4.1.3 Aging and discrimination
4.2 United States
4.2.1 Crime and the justice system
4.2.2 Hate crimes
4.2.3 Advertising junk food to children
4.2.4 Obesity
4.2.5 Hunger
4.2.6 Media propaganda
4.2.7 Alcohol and other drugs
4.3 India
4.3.1 Corruption
4.3.2 Social structure
4.3.3 Poverty
4.3.4 Terrorism
4.4 Germany
4.4.1 Poverty
4.4.2 Birth rate
4.4.3 Deprived neighbourhoods
4.4.4 Political extremism, racism and antisemitism
4.5 France
4.5.1 Precarity and poverty
4.5.2 Gender inequality
5 Other issues

Human overpopulation From Wikipedia:
Human overpopulation (or population overshoot) is when there are too many people for the environment to sustain (with food, drinkable water, breathable air, etc.).
In more scientific terms, there is overshoot when the ecological footprint of a human population in a geographical area exceeds that place's carrying capacity, damaging the environment faster than nature can repair it, potentially leading to an ecological and societal collapse.
Overpopulation could apply to the population of a specific region, or to world population as a whole.

Overpopulation can result from an increase in births, a decline in mortality rates, an increase in immigration, or an unsustainable biome and depletion of resources.
It is possible for very sparsely populated areas to be overpopulated if the area has a meager or non-existent capability to sustain life (e.g. a desert).

Advocates of population moderation cite issues like exceeding the Earth's carrying capacity, global warming, potential or imminent ecological collapse, impact on quality of life, and risk of mass starvation or even extinction as a basis to argue for population decline.

A more controversial definition of overpopulation, as advocated by Paul Ehrlich, is a situation where a population is in the process of depleting non-renewable resources.
Under this definition, changes in lifestyle could cause an overpopulated area to no longer be overpopulated without any reduction in population, or vice versa.

Scientists suggest that the overall human impact on the environment, due to overpopulation, overconsumption, pollution, and proliferation of technology, has pushed the planet into a new geological epoch known as the Anthropocene.

Contents
1 Current population dynamics, and cause for concern
2 History
2.1 History of concern
2.2 History of population growth
2.3 Causes
2.3.1 Population as a function of food availability
3 Dangers and effects
3.1 Poverty, and infant and child mortality
3.2 Environmental impacts
3.2.1 Biodiversity loss and the Holocene extinction
3.2.2 Pollution
3.2.3 Potential ecological collapse
3.3 Depletion and destruction of resources
3.3.1 Fresh water
3.3.1.1 Water deficits
3.3.2 Land
3.3.3 Fossil fuels
3.3.4 Food
3.3.4.1 Global perspective on food supply
3.4 Africa
3.5 Asia
3.5.1 Japan
3.6 Warfare and conflict over dwindling resources
3.6.1 Criticism of this hypothesis
3.7 Other
4 Further dynamics
4.1 Demographic transition
4.2 Carrying capacity
5 Projections of population growth
5.1 Urban growth
6 Proposed solutions and mitigation measures
6.1 Reducing overpopulation
6.1.1 Education and empowerment
6.1.2 Birth regulations
6.2 Extraterrestrial settlement
6.3 Urbanizationv 7 Graph gallery

For more information, see Human overpopulation .
Substance abuse From Wikipedia:
Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is a patterned use of a drug in which the user consumes the substance in amounts or with methods which are harmful to themselves or others, and is a form of substance-related disorder.
Widely differing definitions of drug abuse are used in public health, medical and criminal justice contexts.
In some cases criminal or anti-social behaviour occurs when the person is under the influence of a drug, and long term personality changes in individuals may occur as well.
In addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, use of some drugs may also lead to criminal penalties, although these vary widely depending on the local jurisdiction.

Drugs most often associated with this term include: alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, methaqualone, and opioids.
The exact cause of substance abuse is not clear, with the two predominant theories being: either a genetic disposition which is learned from others, or a habit which if addiction develops, manifests itself as a chronic debilitating disease.

In 2010 about 5% of people (230 million) used an illicit substance.
Of these 27 million have high-risk drug use otherwise known as recurrent drug use causing harm to their health, psychological problems, or social problems that put them at risk of those dangers.
In 2015 substance use disorders resulted in 307,400 deaths, up from 165,000 deaths in 1990.
Of these, the highest numbers are from alcohol use disorders at 137,500, opioid use disorders at 122,100 deaths, amphetamine use disorders at 12,200 deaths, and cocaine use disorders at 11,100.

Contents
1 Classification
1.1 Public health definitions
1.2 Medical definitions
1.3 Value judgment
1.4 Drug misuse
2 Signs and symptoms
2.1 Impulsivity
2.2 Screening and assessment
3 Treatment
3.1 Psychological
3.2 Medication
3.3 Dual diagnosis
4 Epidemiology
5 History
5.1 APA, AMA, and NCDA
5.2 DSM
6 Society and culture
6.1 Legal approaches
6.2 Cost
7 Special populations
7.1 Immigrants and refugees
7.2 Street children
7.3 Musicians
7.4 Veterans

For more information, see Substance abuse .
Alcoholism From Wikipedia:
Alcoholism, also known as alcohol use disorder (AUD), is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in mental or physical health problems.
The disorder was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence.
In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions are present: a person drinks large amounts of alcohol over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use.
Risky situations include drinking and driving or having unsafe sex, among other things.
Alcohol use can affect all parts of the body, but it particularly affects the brain, heart, liver, pancreas and immune system.
This can result in mental illness, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, irregular heartbeat, an impaired immune response, liver cirrhosis and increased cancer risk, among other diseases.
Drinking during pregnancy can cause damage to the baby resulting in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.
Women are generally more sensitive than men to the harmful physical and mental effects of alcohol.

Environmental factors and genetics are two components associated with alcoholism, with about half the risk attributed to each.
Someone with a parent or sibling with alcoholism is three to four times more likely to become an alcoholic themselves.
Environmental factors include social, cultural and behavioral influences.
High stress levels and anxiety, as well as alcohol's inexpensive cost and easy accessibility, increase the risk.
People may continue to drink partly to prevent or improve symptoms of withdrawal.
After a person stops drinking alcohol, they may experience a low level of withdrawal lasting for months.
Medically, alcoholism is considered both a physical and mental illness.
Questionnaires and certain blood tests may both detect people with possible alcoholism.
Further information is then collected to confirm the diagnosis.
...
Contents
1 Signs and symptoms
1.1 Long-term misuse
1.2 Warning signs
1.3 Alcohol withdrawal
2 Causes
2.1 Availability
2.2 Gender difference
2.3 Genetic variation
3 Diagnosis
3.1 Definition
3.2 Social barriers
3.3 Screening
3.4 Urine and blood tests
4 Prevention
5 Management
5.1 Detoxification
5.2 Psychological
5.3 Moderate drinking
5.4 Medications
5.5 Dual addictions and dependences
6 Epidemiology
7 Prognosis
8 History
9 Society and culture
10 Research
10.1 Topiramate
10.2 Baclofen
10.3 Ondansetron
10.4 LSD

For more information, see Alcoholism .
Social alienation From Wikipedia:
Social alienation is "a condition in social relationships reflected by a low degree of integration or common values and a high degree of distance or isolation between individuals, or between an individual and a group of people in a community or work environment".
It is a sociological concept developed by several classical and contemporary theorists.
The concept has many discipline-specific uses, and can refer both to a personal psychological state (subjectively) and to a type of social relationship (objectively).

Contents
1 History
1.1 17th century
1.2 Marx
1.3 Late 1800s to 1900s
2 Powerlessness
3 Meaninglessness
4 Normlessness
5 Relationships
6 Social isolation
7 Among returning war veterans
8 Political alienation
9 Self-estrangement
10 Mental disturbance
11 Disability
12 In art

For more information, see Social alienation .
Disease From Wikipedia:
A disease is a particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of part or all of an organism, and that is not due to any external injury.
Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that are associated with specific symptoms and signs.
A disease may be caused by external factors such as pathogens or by internal dysfunctions.
For example, internal dysfunctions of the immune system can produce a variety of different diseases, including various forms of immunodeficiency, hypersensitivity, allergies and autoimmune disorders.

In humans, disease is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, or death to the person afflicted, or similar problems for those in contact with the person.
In this broader sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts and for other purposes these may be considered distinguishable categories.
Diseases can affect people not only physically, but also mentally, as contracting and living with a disease can alter the affected person's perspective on life.

Death due to disease is called death by natural causes.
There are four main types of disease: infectious diseases, deficiency diseases, hereditary diseases (including both genetic diseases and non-genetic hereditary diseases), and physiological diseases.
Diseases can also be classified in other ways, such as communicable versus non-communicable diseases.
The deadliest diseases in humans are coronary artery disease (blood flow obstruction), followed by cerebrovascular disease and lower respiratory infections.
In developed countries, the diseases that cause the most sickness overall are neuropsychiatric conditions, such as depression and anxiety.

The study of disease is called pathology, which includes the study of etiology, or cause.

Contents
1 Terminology
1.1 Concepts
1.2 Types by body system
1.3 Stages
1.4 Extent
2 Classifications
3 Causes
3.1 Types of causes
4 Prevention
5 Treatments
6 Epidemiologyv 6.1 Burdens of disease
7 Society and culture
7.1 Language of disease

For more information, see Disease .
Obesity From Wikipedia:
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to an extent that it may have a negative effect on health.
People are generally considered obese when their body mass index (BMI), a measurement obtained by dividing a person's weight by the square of the person's height, is over 30 kg/m2; the range 25–30 kg/m2 is defined as overweight.
Some East Asian countries use lower values.
Obesity increases the likelihood of various diseases and conditions, particularly cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, osteoarthritis, and depression.

Obesity is most commonly caused by a combination of excessive food intake, lack of physical activity, and genetic susceptibility.
A few cases are caused primarily by genes, endocrine disorders, medications, or mental disorder.
The view that obese people eat little yet gain weight due to a slow metabolism is not medically supported.
On average, obese people have a greater energy expenditure than their normal counterparts due to the energy required to maintain an increased body mass.

Obesity is mostly preventable through a combination of social changes and personal choices.
Changes to diet and exercising are the main treatments.
Diet quality can be improved by reducing the consumption of energy-dense foods, such as those high in fat or sugars, and by increasing the intake of dietary fiber.
Medications can be used, along with a suitable diet, to reduce appetite or decrease fat absorption.
If diet, exercise, and medication are not effective, a gastric balloon or surgery may be performed to reduce stomach volume or length of the intestines, leading to feeling full earlier or a reduced ability to absorb nutrients from food.

Obesity is a leading preventable cause of death worldwide, with increasing rates in adults and children.
In 2015, 600 million adults (12%) and 100 million children were obese in 195 countries.
Obesity is more common in women than men.
Authorities view it as one of the most serious public health problems of the 21st century.
Obesity is stigmatized in much of the modern world (particularly in the Western world), though it was seen as a symbol of wealth and fertility at other times in history and still is in some parts of the world.
In 2013, several medical societies, including the American Medical Association and the American Heart Association, classified obesity as a disease.

Contents
1 Classification
2 Effects on health
2.1 Mortality
2.2 Morbidity
2.3 Survival paradox
3 Causes
3.1 Diet
3.2 Sedentary lifestyle
3.3 Genetics
3.4 Other illnesses
3.5 Social determinants
3.6 Gut bacteriav 3.7 Other factors
4 Pathophysiology
5 Public health
5.1 Reports
6 Management
7 Epidemiology
8 History
8.1 Etymology
8.2 Historical attitudes
8.3 The arts
9 Society and culture
9.1 Economic impact
9.2 Size acceptance
9.3 Industry influence on research
10 Childhood obesity
11 Other animals

For more information, see Obesity .
Occupational stress From Wikipedia:
Occupational stress is stress related to one's job.
Occupational stress often stems from unexpected responsibilities and pressures that do not align with a person's knowledge, skills, or expectations, inhibiting one's ability to cope.
Occupational stress can increase when workers do not feel supported by supervisors or colleagues, or feel as if they have little control over work processes.

Contents
1 Factory worker
2 Origins
3 Prevalence
4 Negative health effects
5 Gender
6 Causes
6.1 Working conditions
6.2 Workload
6.3 Long hours
6.4 Status
6.5 Economic factors
6.6 Bullying
6.7 Narcissism and psychopathy
6.8 Workplace conflict
6.9 Sexual harassment
6.10 Occupational group
7 Effects
8 Prevention
8.1 Signs and symptoms of excessive job and workplace stress

For more information, see Occupational stress .
Mental disorder From Wikipedia:
A mental disorder, also called a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning.
Such features may be persistent, relapsing and remitting, or occur as a single episode.
Many disorders have been described, with signs and symptoms that vary widely between specific disorders.
Such disorders may be diagnosed by a mental health professional.

The causes of mental disorders are often unclear.
Theories may incorporate findings from a range of fields. Mental disorders are usually defined by a combination of how a person behaves, feels, perceives, or thinks.
This may be associated with particular regions or functions of the brain, often in a social context.
A mental disorder is one aspect of mental health.
Cultural and religious beliefs, as well as social norms, should be taken into account when making a diagnosis.

Services are based in psychiatric hospitals or in the community, and assessments are carried out by mental health professionals such as psychiatrists, psychologists, and clinical social workers, using various methods such as psychometric tests but often relying on observation and questioning.
Treatments are provided by various mental health professionals.
Psychotherapy and psychiatric medication are two major treatment options.
Other treatments include lifestyle changes, social interventions, peer support, and self-help.
In a minority of cases there might be involuntary detention or treatment.
Prevention programs have been shown to reduce depression.

Common mental disorders include depression, which affects about 300 million, bipolar disorder, which affects about 60 million, dementia, which affects about 50 million, and schizophrenia and other psychoses, which affects about 23 million people globally.
Stigma and discrimination can add to the suffering and disability associated with mental disorders, leading to various social movements attempting to increase understanding and challenge social exclusion.

Contents
1 Definition
1.1 Concept of nervous illness
2 Classifications
2.1 Dimensional models
2.2 Disorders
3 Signs and symptoms
3.1 Course
3.2 Disability
4 Risk factors
4.1 Drugs
4.2 Personality traits
4.3 Genetics
4.4 Environmental
4.5 Modelsv 5 Diagnosis
5.1 Criticism
6 Prevention
7 Management
7.1 Lifestyle
7.2 Psychotherapy
7.3 Medicationv 7.4 Otherv 8 Epidemiology
9 History
9.1 Ancient civilizations
9.2 Europe
9.3 Europe and the United States
10 Society and culture
10.1 Religion
10.2 Movements
10.3 Cultural bias
10.4 Laws and policies
10.5 Perception and discrimination
11 Mental health
12 Other animals

For more information, see Mental disorder .
Homelessness From Wikipedia:
Homelessness is defined as living in housing that is below the minimum standard or lacks secure tenure.
People can be categorized as homeless if they are: living on the streets (primary homelessness); moving between temporary shelters, including houses of friends, family and emergency accommodation (secondary homelessness); living in private boarding houses without a private bathroom and/or security of tenure (tertiary homelessness).
The legal definition of homeless varies from country to country, or among different jurisdictions in the same country or region.
According to the UK homelessness charity Crisis, a home is not just a physical space: it also provides roots, identity, security, a sense of belonging and a place of emotional wellbeing.
United States government homeless enumeration studies also include people who sleep in a public or private place not designed for use as a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings.
People who are homeless are most often unable to acquire and maintain regular, safe, secure and adequate housing due to a lack of, or an unsteady income.
Homelessness and poverty are interrelated.

In 2005, an estimated 100 million (1 in 65 at the time) people worldwide were homeless and as many as 1 billion people live as squatters, refugees or in temporary shelter, all lacking adequate housing.
Historically in the Western countries, the majority of homeless have been men (50–80%), with single males particularly overrepresented.
In 2015, the United States reported that there were 564,708 homeless people within its borders, one of the higher reported figures worldwide.
These figures are likely underestimates as surveillance for the homeless population is challenging.
...
Contents
1 Definition and classification
1.1 United Nations definition
1.2 European typology
1.3 Other terms
2 History
2.1 Early history through the 1800s
2.2 Modern
3 Social science
3.1 Causes
3.2 Challenges
4 Assistance and resources
4.1 Social supports
4.2 Income sources
4.3 Employment
4.4 Housing
4.5 Political action: voting
4.6 Legislation and legal pro bono efforts
5 Services
6 Housing
6.1 Urban homeless shelters
6.2 Refuges and alternative accommodation
6.3 Other housing options
7 Health care
7.1 Effect on life expectancy
7.2 Health Impacts of Extreme Weather Events
8 Global statistics
8.1 Demographics
8.2 Statistics for developed countries
8.3 Developing and undeveloped countries
9 By country
9.1 Australiav 9.2 Canada
9.3 United States
9.4 United Kingdom
9.5 South Africa
9.6 Sweden
9.7 Finland
9.8 Russia and the USSR
9.9 Puerto Rico
9.10 Hungary
10 Popular culture
10.1 Films
10.2 Books
11 Public awareness

For more information, see Homelessness .
Unemployment From Wikipedia:
Unemployment, according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), is when persons above a specified age (usually above 15) are not in paid employment or self-employment and are currently available for work during the reference period.

Unemployment is measured by the unemployment rate as the number of persons who are unemployed as a percentage of the labour force (the total number of people employed plus unemployed).

Unemployment can have many sources like this:

- new technologies and inventions
- the status of the economy which could be influenced by a recession
- competition due to globalization and international trade
- policies of the government
- regulation and market

Unemployment and the status of the economy can be influenced by a country through for example fiscal policy.
Furthermore the monetary authority of a country like the central bank could influence the availability and cost for money through its monetary policy.

In addition to theories of unemployment, there are a few categorizations of unemployment that are used to more precisely model the effects of unemployment within the economic system.
Some of the main types of unemployment include structural unemployment and frictional unemployment, as well as cyclical unemployment, involuntary unemployment, and classical unemployment.
Structural unemployment focuses on foundational problems in the economy and inefficiencies inherent in labor markets, including a mismatch between the supply and demand of laborers with necessary skill sets.
Structural arguments emphasize causes and solutions related to disruptive technologies and globalization.
Discussions of frictional unemployment focus on voluntary decisions to work based on each individuals' valuation of their own work and how that compares to current wage rates plus the time and effort required to find a job.
Causes and solutions for frictional unemployment often address job entry threshold and wage rates.

172 Million people globally or 5% of the reported workforce of the world were without a job in 2018 according to the International Labour Organization (ILO).

Because of the difficulty to measure the unemployment rate by for example using surveys like in the United States of America (USA) or through registered unemployed citizens like in some european countries, statistical figures like the employment-to-population ratio could be better suited to evaluate the status of the labor force and the economy if they would be based on people who are registered as for example taxpayer.

Contents
1 Definitions, types, and theories
1.1 Classical unemployment
1.2 Cyclical unemployment
1.3 Full unemployment
1.4 Structural unemployment
1.5 Frictional unemployment
1.6 Hidden unemployment
1.7 Long-term unemployment
1.8 Marxian theory of unemployment
2 Measurement
2.1 European Union (Eurostat)
2.2 United States Bureau of Labor statistics
2.3 Alternatives
2.3.1 Limitations of the unemployment definition
2.3.2 Labor force participation rate
2.3.3 Unemployment ratio
3 Effects
3.1 Costs
3.1.1 Individual
3.1.2 Social
3.1.3 Socio-political
3.2 Benefits
3.3 Decline in work hours
4 Controlling or reducing unemployment
4.1 Demand-side solutions
4.2 Supply-side solutions
5 History
5.1 Industrial Revolution to late 19th century
5.2 20th century
5.3 21st century

For more information, see Unemployment .
Malnutrition From Wikipedia:
Malnutrition is a condition that results from eating a diet in which one or more nutrients are either not enough or are too much such that the diet causes health problems.
It may involve calories, protein, carbohydrates, vitamins or minerals.
Not enough nutrients is called undernutrition or undernourishment while too much is called overnutrition.
Malnutrition is often used to specifically refer to undernutrition where an individual is not getting enough calories, protein, or micronutrients.
If undernutrition occurs during pregnancy, or before two years of age, it may result in permanent problems with physical and mental development.
Extreme undernourishment, known as starvation, may have symptoms that include: a short height, thin body, very poor energy levels, and swollen legs and abdomen.
People also often get infections and are frequently cold.
The symptoms of micronutrient deficiencies depend on the micronutrient that is lacking.
...
There were 821 million undernourished people in the world in 2018 (10.8% of the total population).
This is a reduction of about 176 million people since 1990 when 23% were undernourished, but an increase of about 36 million since 2015, when 10.6% were undernourished.
In 2012, it was estimated that another billion people had a lack of vitamins, and minerals.
In 2015, protein-energy malnutrition was estimated to have resulted in 323,000 deaths—down from 510,000 deaths in 1990.
Other nutritional deficiencies, which include iodine deficiency and iron deficiency anemia, result in another 83,000 deaths.
In 2010, malnutrition was the cause of 1.4% of all disability adjusted life years.
About a third of deaths in children are believed to be due to undernutrition, although the deaths are rarely labelled as such.
In 2010, it was estimated to have contributed to about 1.5 million deaths in women and children, though some estimate the number may be greater than 3 million.
An additional 165 million children were estimated to have stunted growth from malnutrition in 2013.
Undernutrition is more common in developing countries.
Certain groups have higher rates of undernutrition, including women—in particular while pregnant or breastfeeding—children under five years of age, and the elderly.
In the elderly, undernutrition becomes more common due to physical, psychological, and social factors.

Contents
1 Definitions
1.1 Undernutrition and overnutrition
1.2 Protein-energy malnutrition
1.3 Undernutrition, hunger
1.4 Definition by Gomez
1.5 Definition by Waterlow
2 Effects
2.1 Signs
2.2 Cognitive development
3 Causes
3.1 Diseases
3.2 Dietary practices
3.3 Poverty and food prices
3.4 Agricultural productivity
3.5 Future threats
4 Prevention
4.1 Food security
4.2 Economics
4.3 World population
4.4 Food sovereignty
4.5 Health facilities
4.6 Breastfeeding
4.7 21st century global initiatives
5 Treatment
5.1 Food
5.2 Micronutrients
5.3 Diarrhea
5.4 Low blood sugar
5.5 Hypothermia
6 Epidemiology
6.1 People affected
6.2 Mortality
7 History
8 Special populations
8.1 Children
8.2 Women
8.3 Elderly

For more information, see Malnutrition .
Poverty From Wikipedia:
Poverty is not having enough material possessions or income for a person's needs.
Poverty may include social, economic, and political elements.

Absolute poverty is the complete lack of the means necessary to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing and shelter.
The threshold at which absolute poverty is defined is always about the same, independent of the person's permanent location or era.

On the other hand, relative poverty occurs when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time and place.
Therefore, the threshold at which relative poverty is defined varies from one country to another, or from one society to another.
For example, a person who cannot afford housing better than a small tent in an open field would be said to live in relative poverty if almost everyone else in that area lives in modern brick homes, but not if everyone else also lives in small tents in open fields (for example, in a nomadic tribe).

Governments and non-governmental organizations try to reduce poverty.
Providing basic needs to people who are unable to earn a sufficient income can be hampered by constraints on government's ability to deliver services, such as corruption, tax avoidance, debt and loan conditionalities and by the brain drain of health care and educational professionals.
Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms and providing financial services.

Contents
1 Global prevalence
2 Definitions and etymology
3 Measuring poverty
3.1 Absolute poverty
3.2 Relative poverty
3.3 Secondary poverty
3.4 Other aspects
4 Characteristics
4.1 Impact on health and mortality
4.2 Hunger
4.3 Education
4.4 Participation
4.5 Shelter
4.6 Utilities
4.7 Violence
4.8 Personality
4.9 Discrimination
5 Causes of poverty
6 Poverty reduction
6.1 Increasing the supply of basic needs
6.2 Increasing personal income
7 Wealth concentration
8 Business solutions to poverty
8.1 Serving the poor market
8.2 Creating entrepreneurs
8.3 Criticisms of this approach
9 Environmental issues
10 Voluntary poverty
11 Charts and tables

For more information, see Poverty .
Famine From Wikipedia:
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including war, inflation, crop failure, population imbalance, or government policies.
This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality.
Every inhabited continent in the world has experienced a period of famine throughout history.
In the 19th and 20th century, it was generally Southeast and South Asia, as well as Eastern and Central Europe that suffered the most deaths from famine.
The numbers dying from famine began to fall sharply from the 2000s.

Some countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, continue to have extreme cases of famine.
Since 2010, Africa has been the most affected continent in the world. As of 2017, the United Nations has warned over 20 million are at risk in South Sudan, Somalia, Nigeria and Yemen.
The distribution of food has been affected by conflict. Most programmes now direct their aid towards Africa.

Contents
1 Definitions
2 History
2.1 Decline of famine
2.2 Attempts at famine alleviation
2.3 20th century
3 21st century
4 Regional history
4.1 Africa
4.2 The role of African Unity organization
4.3 Far East
4.4 India
4.5 Middle East
4.6 Europe
4.7 Latin America
4.8 Oceania
5 Risk of future famine
6 Causes
6.1 Climate and population pressure
6.2 State-sponsored famines
7 Famine prevention
7.1 Food security
7.2 Relief
7.3 Levels of food insecurity
8 Society and culture

For more information, see Famine .
Discrimination From Wikipedia:
In human social behavior, discrimination is prejudiced treatment or consideration of, or making a distinction towards, a being based on the group, class, or category to which they are perceived to belong.
These include age, caste, colour, criminal record, height, disability, ethnicity, family status, gender identity, generation, genetic characteristics, marital status, nationality, race, religion, sex, sexual orientation, social class, and species.
Discrimination consists of treatment of an individual or group, based on their actual or perceived membership in a certain group or social category, "in a way that is worse than the way people are usually treated".
It involves the group's initial reaction or interaction going on to influence the individual's actual behavior towards the group leader or the group, restricting members of one group from opportunities or privileges that are available to another group, leading to the exclusion of the individual or entities based on illogical or irrational decision making.

Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices and laws exist in many countries and institutions in every part of the world, including in territories where discrimination is generally looked down upon.
In some places, controversial attempts such as quotas have been used to benefit those who are believed to be current or past victims of discrimination—but they have sometimes been called reverse discrimination.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Definitions
3 Types
3.1 Age
3.2 Caste
3.3 Culture or subculture
3.4 Disability
3.5 Language
3.6 Name
3.7 Nationality
3.8 Race or ethnicity
3.9 Region
3.10 Religious beliefs
3.11 Sex, sex characteristics, gender, and gender identity
3.12 Sexual orientation
3.13 Species
3.14 Drug use
3.15 Reverse discrimination
4 Legislation
4.1 United Nations documents
5 Theories
5.1 Labeling theory
5.2 Game theory
6 State vs. free market

For more information, see Discrimination .
Racism From Wikipedia:
Racism is the belief in the superiority of one race over another.
It may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of a different race or ethnicity.
Modern variants of racism are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples.
These views can take the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities.

In terms of political systems (e.g., apartheid) that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices or laws, racist ideology may include associated social aspects such as nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, and supremacism.

While the concepts of race and ethnicity are considered to be separate in contemporary social science, the two terms have a long history of equivalence in both popular usage and older social science literature.
"Ethnicity" is often used in a sense close to one traditionally attributed to "race": the division of human groups based on qualities assumed to be essential or innate to the group (e.g. shared ancestry or shared behavior).
Therefore, racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial.
According to a United Nations convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms "racial" and "ethnic" discrimination.
The UN convention further concludes that superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust and dangerous.
It also declared that there is no justification for racial discrimination, anywhere, in theory or in practice.

Historically, racism was a major driving force behind the Atlantic slave trade.
It was also a major force behind racial segregation especially in the United States in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and South Africa under apartheid; 19th and 20th century racism in Western culture is particularly well documented and constitutes a reference point in studies and discourses about racism.
Racism has played a role in genocides such as the Holocaust, and the Armenian genocide, and colonial projects like the European colonization of the Americas, Africa, and Asia.
Indigenous peoples have been –and are– often subject to racist attitudes.

Contents
1 Etymology, definition and usage
1.1 Legal
1.2 Social and behavioral sciences
1.3 Humanities
1.4 Popular usage
2 Aspects
2.1 Aversive racism
2.2 Color blindness
2.3 Cultural
2.4 Economic
2.5 Institutional
2.6 Othering
2.7 Racial discrimination
2.8 Racial segregation
2.9 Supremacism
2.10 Symbolic/modern
2.11 Subconscious biases
3 International law and racial discrimination
4 Ideology
5 Ethnicity and ethnic conflicts
5.1 Ethnic and racial nationalism
6 History
6.1 Ethnocentrism and proto-racism
6.2 Limpieza de sangre
6.3 19th century
6.4 20th century
6.5 Contemporary
7 Scientific racism
7.1 Heredity and eugenics
7.2 Polygenism and racial typologies
7.3 Human zoos
8 Theories about the origins of racism
9 State-sponsored racism
10 Anti-racism

For more information, see Racism .
Supremacism From Wikipedia:
Supremacism is any ideology which holds that a certain thing is supreme among its type.
Most often, the term is used to refer to demographic supremacism, wherein the belief is that one class of people is supreme.
Such classes of people could be based on age, race (classification of human beings), species, ethnicity, gender (social construct), sexuality, social class, ideology, nation, or culture, or any other part of a population.

Contents
1 Sexism
2 Racism
2.1 Germany
3 Fundamentalism
3.1 Christian
3.2 Islamic
3.3 Jewish

For more information, see Supremacism .
Religious discrimination From Wikipedia:
Religious discrimination is treating a person or group differently because of the particular beliefs which they hold about a religion.
This includes instances when adherents of different religions, denominations or non-religions are treated unequally due to their particular beliefs, either before the law or in institutional settings, such as employment or housing.

Religious discrimination is related to religious persecution, the most extreme forms of which would include instances in which people have been executed for beliefs perceived to be heretic.
Laws which only carry light punishments are described as mild forms of religious persecution or as religious discrimination.

Even in societies where freedom of religion is a constitutional right, adherents of religious minorities sometimes voice concerns about religious discrimination against them.
Insofar as legal policies are concerned, cases that are perceived as religious discrimination might be the result of an interference of the religious sphere with other spheres of the public that are regulated by law (and not aimed specifically against a religious minority).

Contents
1 In Western countries
1.1 United States
1.2 Canada
1.3 Germany
1.4 Greece
1.5 Mexico
2 In the Middle East
2.1 Iraq
2.2 Turkey
2.3 Saudi Arabia
3 In South Asia
3.1 Pakistan
3.2 India

For more information, see Religious discrimination .
Ageism From Wikipedia:
Ageism, also spelled agism, is stereotyping and/or discrimination against individuals or groups on the basis of their age.
This may be casual or systematic.
The term was coined in 1969 by Robert Neil Butler to describe discrimination against seniors, and patterned on sexism and racism.
Butler defined "ageism" as a combination of three connected elements.
Among them were prejudicial attitudes towards older people, old age, and the aging process; discriminatory practices against older people; and institutional practices and policies that perpetuate stereotypes about elderly people.

While the term is also used in regards to prejudice and discrimination against adolescents and children, such as denying them certain rights (e.g. voting), ignoring their ideas because they are considered "too young", or assuming that they should behave in certain ways because of their age, the term is predominantly used in relation to the treatment of older people.
Older people themselves can be deeply ageist, having internalized a lifetime of negative stereotypes about aging.
Fear of death and fear of disability and dependence are major causes of ageism; avoiding, segregating, and rejecting older people are coping mechanisms that allow people to avoid thinking about their own mortality.

Contents
1 Classification
1.1 Distinction from other age-related bias
1.2 Implicit ageism
1.3 Stereotyping
1.4 Prejudice
1.5 Digital ageism
1.6 Visual ageism
2 Discrimination
2.1 Employment
2.2 Hollywood
2.3 Healthcare
3 Effects of ageism
3.1 Australia
3.2 Canada
3.3 Nigeria
3.4 Philippines
3.5 United States
3.6 European Union
3.6.1 Germany
3.6.2 France
3.6.3 Belgium
3.6.4 United Kingdom
4 Advocacy campaigns
4.1 Related campaigns
4.2 Accusations of ageism

For more information, see Ageism .
Social inequality From Wikipedia:
Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly, typically through norms of allocation, that engender specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons.
It is the differentiation preference of access of social goods in the society brought about by power, religion, kinship, prestige, race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and class.
The social rights include labor market, the source of income, health care, and freedom of speech, education, political representation, and participation.
Social inequality linked to economic inequality, usually described on the basis of the unequal distribution of income or wealth, is a frequently studied type of social inequality.
Although the disciplines of economics and sociology generally use different theoretical approaches to examine and explain economic inequality, both fields are actively involved in researching this inequality.
However, social and natural resources other than purely economic resources are also unevenly distributed in most societies and may contribute to social status.
Norms of allocation can also affect the distribution of rights and privileges, social power, access to public goods such as education or the judicial system, adequate housing, transportation, credit and financial services such as banking and other social goods and services.
...
Contents
1 Overview
2 Inequality and ideology
3 Inequality and social class
4 Patterns of inequality
4.1 Gender inequality
4.2 Racial and ethnic inequality
4.3 Age inequality
4.4 Inequalities in health
4.4.1 Health care
4.4.2 Food
5 Global inequality
6 Inequality and economic growth

For more information, see Social inequality .
Educational inequality From Wikipedia:
Educational inequality is the unequal distribution of academic resources, including but not limited to; school funding, qualified and experienced teachers, books, and technologies to socially excluded communities.
These communities tend to be historically disadvantaged and oppressed.
More times than not, individuals belonging to these marginalized groups are also denied access to the schools with abundant resources.
Inequality leads to major differences in the educational success or efficiency of these individuals and ultimately suppresses social and economic mobility. See Statistic sections for more information.
...
Much of educational inequality is attributed to economic disparities that often falls along racial lines and much modern conversation about educational equity conflates the two, showing how they are inseparable from residential location and, more recently, language.
Educational inequality between white students and minority students continues to perpetuate social and economic inequality.

Throughout the world, there have been continuous attempts to reform education at all levels.
With different causes that are deeply rooted in history, society, and culture, this inequality is difficult to eradicate.
Although difficult, education is vital to society's movement forward.
It promotes "citizenship, identity, equality of opportunity and social inclusion, social cohesion as well as economic growth and employment" and for these reasons, equality is widely promoted.

Unequal educational outcomes are attributed to several variables, including family of origin, gender, and social class.
Achievement, earnings, health status, and political participation also contribute to educational inequality within the United States and other countries.

Contents
1 Family background
2 Gender
2.1 Female disadvantage
2.2 Male disadvantage
3 Race
3.1 United States only
4 Immigration status
4.1 In the United States
5 Latino students and college preparednessess
5.1 Latino migration
5.2 Education
5.3 College preparation
5.4 Standardized tests
6 Rural and inner city education
6.1 Standardized Test
6.2 Spatial inequalities
7 Gifted and talented education
7.1 Recommendations
8 Special education
9 History of educational oppression
9.1 United States of America (US)
9.2 Resources
9.3 State conflicts
10 Measurement
11 Effects
11.1 Social mobility
12 Remedies
12.1 Assessment
12.2 Education for All Act
12.3 Global Partnership for Education
12.4 Multicultural education
12.5 Massive online classes
13 Policy implications
14 Global evidence
14.1 Albania
14.2 Bangladesh
14.3 South Africa
14.4 United Kingdom (UK)
14.5 Sudan Republic (SD)
14.6 United States of America (US)
14.7 International comparisons

For more information, see Educational inequality .
Sexual harassment From Wikipedia:
Sexual harassment is a type of harassment technique that relates to a sexual nature and the unwelcome or inappropriate promise of rewards in exchange for sexual favors.
Sexual harassment includes a range of actions from mild transgressions to sexual abuse or assault.
Harassment can occur in many different social settings such as the workplace, the home, school, churches, etc.
Harassers or victims may be of any gender.

In most modern legal contexts, sexual harassment is illegal.
Laws surrounding sexual harassment generally do not prohibit simple teasing, offhand comments, or minor isolated incidents—that is due to the fact that they do not impose a "general civility code".
In the workplace, harassment may be considered illegal when it is frequent or severe thereby creating a hostile or offensive work environment or when it results in an adverse employment decision (such as the victim's demotion, firing or quitting).
The legal and social understanding of sexual harassment, however, varies by culture.

Sexual harassment by an employer is a form of illegal employment discrimination.
For many businesses or organizations, preventing sexual harassment and defending employees from sexual harassment charges have become key goals of legal decision-making.

Contents
1 Etymology and history
1.1 The term "sexual harassment"
1.2 Key sexual harassment cases
2 Situations
3 In the workplace
3.1 Armed forces
4 In the military
5 Varied behaviors
6 Prevention
7 Impact
7.1 Coping
7.2 Common effects on the victims
7.3 Post-complaint retaliation and backlash
7.4 Backlash stress
8 Organizational policies and procedures
9 Evolution of law in different jurisdictions
9.1 Varied legal guidelines and definitions
9.2 Africa
9.3 Australia
9.4 Europe
9.5 Asia
9.6 United States
10 Historical antecedents
10.1 Ancient Rome
11 Criticism
12 In media and literature

For more information, see Sexual harassment .
Sexism From Wikipedia:
Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on a person's sex or gender.
Sexism can affect anyone, but it primarily affects women and girls.
It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another.
Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence.
Gender discrimination may encompass sexism, and is discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences.
Gender discrimination is especially defined in terms of workplace inequality.
It may arise from social or cultural customs and norms.

Contents
1 Etymology and definitions
2 History
2.1 Ancient world
2.2 Witch hunts and trials
2.3 Coverture and other marriage regulations
2.4 Suffrage and politics
2.4.1 Menus
3 Gender stereotypes
4 In language
4.1 Sexist and gender-neutral language
4.2 Sexism in languages other than English
4.3 Gender-specific pejorative terms
5 Occupational sexism
5.1 Gap in hiring
5.2 Earnings gap
5.2.1 Possible causes for wage discrimination
5.3 Glass ceiling effect
5.3.1 Potential remedies
5.4 Weight-based sexism
5.5 Transgender discrimination
6 Objectification
6.1 In advertising
6.2 Pornography
6.3 Prostitution
6.4 Media portrayals
6.5 Sexist jokes
7 Gender identity discrimination
7.1 Oppositional sexism
7.2 Transgender discrimination
8 Examples
8.1 Domestic violence
8.2 Gendercide and forced sterilization
8.3 Female genital mutilation
8.4 Sexual assault and treatment of victims
8.5 War rape
8.6 Reproductive rights
8.7 Child and forced marriage
8.8 Legal justice and regulations
8.9 Education
8.10 Fashion
8.11 Conscription

For more information, see Sexism .
Occupational inequality From Wikipedia:
Occupational inequality is the unequal treatment of people based on gender, sexuality, height, weight, accent, or race in the workplace.
When researchers study trends in occupational inequality they usually focus on distribution or allocation pattern of groups across occupations, for example, the distribution of men compared to women in a certain occupation.
Secondly, they focus on the link between occupation and income, for example, comparing the income of whites with blacks in the same occupation.

Contents
1 Effects
2 History
3 Theories
4 Measurement
5 Occupational segregation
6 Gender inequality
7 Racial inequality
8 Causes
9 Inequality in education
10 Getting a job: skills, networks, and discrimination
10.1 Role of socioeconomic status and human capital in building workforce skills sets
10.2 Skills and employment: job placement and employment trends
10.3 Introduction to discrimination
10.4 Discrimination in the workplace
10.5 Networks: the mechanisms and advantages of professional connections
11 Gender pay gap
12 Pay gap between mothers and non-mothers
13 Returning to work
14 Career experiences: gender inequality in the workplace
14.1 Tokenism
14.2 The "double bind" for female workers
14.3 Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender workplace inequality
14.4 Inequality in the financial field
14.4.1 The glass ceiling
14.4.2 The corporate culture
14.4.3 Access: barriers and advantages
14.5 Inequality in STEM fields
14.5.1 Communication
14.5.2 Social factors
15 Work and family
15.1 Inequality in household work and childcare
15.2 Alternative family styles in relation to childcare and career experiences

For more information, see Occupational inequality .
Gender inequality From Wikipedia:
Gender inequality acknowledges that men and women are not equal and that gender affects an individual's living experience.
These differences arise from distinctions in biology, psychology, and cultural norms.
Some of these distinctions are empirically grounded while others appear to be socially constructed.
Studies show the different lived experience of genders across many domains including education, life expectancy, personality, interests, family life, careers, and political affiliations.
Gender inequality is experienced differently across different cultures.

Contents
1 Natural gender differences
1.1 Biology
1.2 Psychology
2 In the workplace
2.1 Income disparities linked to job stratification
2.2 Professional education and careers
2.3 Customer preference studies
2.4 Gender pay differences in the medical field
3 At home
3.1 Gender roles in parenting and marriage
3.1.1 Gender inequality in relationships
3.1.2 Attempts in equalizing household work
3.1.3 Gender inequalities in relation to technology
3.2 Property inheritance
3.3 Structural marginalization
3.4 Gender stereotypes
3.5 Biological fertilisation stereotypes
3.6 Sexism and discrimination
4 In the criminal justice system
5 In television and film
6 Impact and counteractions
7 Variations by country or culture
7.1 Asia
7.2 Africa
7.3 Cambodia
7.4 Europe
7.4.1 Western Europe
7.4.2 Eastern Europe
7.5 India
7.6 United States
7.6.1 Political affiliations and behaviors
7.6.2 Challenges to women in politics
7.6.3 Steps needed for change

For more information, see Gender inequality .
Health equity From Wikipedia:
Health equity synonymous with health disparity refers to the study and causes of differences in the quality of health and healthcare across different populations.
Health equity is different from health equality, as it refers only to the absence of disparities in controllable or remediable aspects of health.
It is not possible to work towards complete equality in health, as there are some factors of health that are beyond human influence.
Inequity implies some kinds of social injustice.
Thus, if one population dies younger than another because of genetic differences, a non-remediable/controllable factor, we tend to say that there is a health inequality.
On the other hand, if a population has a lower life expectancy due to lack of access to medications, the situation would be classified as a health inequity.
These inequities may include differences in the "presence of disease, health outcomes, or access to health care between populations with a different race, ethnicity, sexual orientation or socioeconomic status.

Health equity falls into two major categories: horizontal equity, the equal treatment of individuals or groups in the same circumstances; and vertical equity, the principle that individuals who are unequal should be treated differently according to their level of need.
Disparities in the quality of health across populations are well-documented globally in both developed and developing nations.
The importance of equitable access to healthcare has been cited as crucial to achieving many of the Millennium Development Goals.

Contents
1 Socioeconomic status
1.1 Education
2 Spatial disparities in health
3 Ethnic and racial disparities
4 LGBT health disparities
5 Sex and gender in healthcare equity
5.1 Sex and gender in medicine
5.2 Health disparities in the male population
5.3 Health disparities in the female population
5.4 Cultural factors
6 Health inequality and environmental influence
7 Disparities in access to health care
8 Disparities in quality of health care
8.1 Problems with patient-provider communication
8.2 Provider discrimination
8.3 Lack of preventive care
9 Plans for achieving health equity
10 Health inequalities
11 Poor health and economic inequality

For more information, see Health equity .
Environmental racism From Wikipedia:
Environmental racism is a concept in the environmental justice movement, which developed throughout the 1970s and 1980s in the United States.
The term is used to describe environmental injustice that occurs in practice and in policy within a racialized context.
In a national context, environmental racism criticizes inequalities between urban and exurban areas after white flight.
Charges of environmental racism can also prompt usages of civil rights legislation like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to prosecute environmental crimes in the areas in which racialized people live.
Internationally, environmental racism can refer to the effects of the global waste trade, like the negative health impact of the export of electronic waste to China from developed countries.

Contents
1 Definition
2 Background
2.1 Causes
2.2 Beginnings and development
3 Socioeconomic aspects of environmental racism
3.1 Cost benefit analysis
3.2 Devaluation cycle
4 Impact on health
5 Cases of environmental racism by location
5.1 North America
5.1.1 Native American reservations
5.1.2 Altgeld Gardens in Chicago, Illinois
5.1.3 Little Village in Chicago, Illinois
5.1.4 Warren County, North Carolina
5.1.5 Mexico City, Mexico
5.1.6 Homer, Forest Grove, and Center Springs, Louisiana
5.1.7 Kelly Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas
5.1.8 New Orleans, Louisiana
5.1.9 Flint, Michigan
5.1.10 Chester, Pennsylvania
5.1.11 Louisiana's Chemical Corridor
5.1.12 Wilmington, North Carolina
5.2 Europe
5.3 Asia
5.3.1 Guiyu, China
5.3.2 Bhopal, India
5.4 South America
5.4.1 Ecuador
5.5 Africa
5.5.1 Niger Delta, Nigeria
6 Addressing environmental racism
6.1 Studies
6.2 Activism
6.3 Policies and international agreements

For more information, see Environmental racism .
Crime From Wikipedia:
In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority.
The term "crime" does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes.
The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law.
One proposed definition is that a crime or offence (or criminal offence) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state ("a public wrong"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.

The notion that acts such as murder, rape, and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide.
What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by criminal law of each country.
While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, in some common law countries no such comprehensive statute exists.

The state (government) has the power to severely restrict one's liberty for committing a crime.
In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere.
If found guilty, an offender may be sentenced to a form of reparation such as a community sentence, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo imprisonment, life imprisonment or, in some jurisdictions, execution.

Usually, to be classified as a crime, the "act of doing something criminal" (actus reus) must – with certain exceptions – be accompanied by the "intention to do something criminal" (mens rea).

While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime.
Breaches of private law (torts and breaches of contract) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure.

Contents
1 Overview
2 Etymology
3 Definition
3.1 England and Wales
3.2 Scotland
3.3 Sociology
3.4 Other definitions
4 Criminalization
5 Labelling theory
6 Natural-law theory
7 History
7.1 Ancient Near East
7.2 Rome and its Legacy in Europe
8 Classification and categorisation
8.1 Categorisation by type
8.2 Categorisation by penalty
8.3 Common law
8.4 Classification by mode of trial
8.5 Classification by origin
8.6 Other classifications
8.7 U.S. classification
9 Reports, studies and organizations
10 Offence in common law jurisdictions
11 Causes and correlates of crime
12 Crimes in international law
13 Religion and crime
14 Military jurisdictions and states of emergency
15 Employee crime

For more information, see Crime .
Corruption From Wikipedia:
In general, corruption is a form of dishonesty or criminal activity undertaken by a person or organization entrusted with a position of authority, often to acquire illicit benefit, or, abuse of entrusted power for one's private gain.
Corruption may include many activities including bribery and embezzlement, though it may also involve practices that are legal in many countries.
Political corruption occurs when an office-holder or other governmental employee acts in an official capacity for personal gain.
Corruption is most commonplace in kleptocracies, oligarchies, narco-states and mafia states.

Corruption can occur on different scales.
Corruption ranges from small favors between a small number of people (petty corruption), to corruption that affects the government on a large scale (grand corruption), and corruption that is so prevalent that it is part of the everyday structure of society, including corruption as one of the symptoms of organized crime.
Corruption and crime are endemic sociological occurrences which appear with regular frequency in virtually all countries on a global scale in varying degree and proportion.
Individual nations each allocate domestic resources for the control and regulation of corruption and crime.
Strategies to counter corruption are often summarized under the umbrella term anti-corruption.

Contents
1 Scales of corruption
1.1 Petty corruption
1.2 Grand corruption
1.3 Systemic corruption
2 In different sectors
2.1 Government/public sector
2.1.1 Political corruption
2.1.2 Police corruption
2.1.3 Judicial corruption
2.2 Corruption in the education system
2.3 Within labor unions
2.4 Corruption in religion
2.5 Corruption in philosophy
2.6 Corporate corruption
2.7 Arms for cash
3 Methods
3.1 Bribery
3.2 Embezzlement, theft and fraud
3.3 Graft
3.4 Extortion and blackmail
3.5 Influence peddling
3.6 Networking
3.7 Abuse of discretion
3.8 Favoritism, nepotism and clientelism
4 Corruption and economic growth
5 Causes of corruption
5.1 Preventing corruption
5.2 Enhancing Civil Society Participation
6 Anti-corruption programmes
7 Corruption tourism
8 Legal corruption
8.1 Examples of legal corruption
8.1.1 Foreign corrupt practices of industrialized OECD countries 1994 study
8.1.2 "Specific" legal corruption: exclusively against foreign countries
8.2 Siemens corruption case
9 Historical responses in philosophical and religious thought

For more information, see Corruption .
Oppression From Wikipedia:
Oppression refers to an overt or secret malicious and harmful pattern of subjugation and exploitation of a community or individuals practiced by a regime, which is thus authoritarian or totalitarian but may be autocratic or hegemonic, on one or more levels of social structures such as governments and institutions from international to local.
Oppression is practiced by methods such as controlling all or some of its citizens or subjects via state control of politics and law, the monetary system and economy, media and information sources (including propaganda, misinformation, and censorship), and violence including the military; denying people any meaningful human or civil rights; and terrorizing the populace through harsh, unjust punishment, and a hidden network of obsequious informants reporting to a vicious secret police force.
Oppression may be distinguished from an individual's actions which form a part of a system of oppression, or defined as the collective results of institutions' and individuals' actions.

Oppression refers to discrimination when the subordination and injustice does not target and may not directly afflict everyone in society but instead targets specific groups of people for restrictions, exploitation, ridicule, and marginalization.
This may be a less overtly malicious pattern of subjugation, although in many ways this social oppression represents a particularly insidious and ruthlessly effective form of manipulation and control and may even be quite overt.

No universally accepted model or terminology has yet emerged to describe oppression and discrimination, although some of the scholars will parse the multiplicity of factors into a handful of categories such as social (or sociocultural) oppression, institutional (or legal) oppression, and economic oppression.

Contents
1 Authoritarian oppression
2 Socioeconomic, political, legal, cultural, and institutional oppression
3 Social oppression
3.1 Privilege
3.2 Racial oppression
3.3 Class oppression
3.4 Gender oppression
3.5 Age oppression
3.6 Sexuality oppression
3.7 Religious persecution
3.8 Domination
3.9 Institutionalized oppression
3.10 Economic oppression
3.11 Feminism and Equal Rights
3.12 "Resistance"

For more information, see Oppression .
News propaganda From Wikipedia:
News propaganda is a type of propaganda covertly packaged as credible news, but without sufficient transparency concerning the news item's source and the motivation behind its release.
Transparency of the source is one parameter critical to distinguish between news propaganda and traditional news press releases and video news releases.

As with any propaganda, news propaganda may be spread for widely different reasons including governance, political or ideological motivations, partisan agendas, religious or ethnic reasons, and commercial or business motivations; their purposes are not always clear.
News propaganda also can be motivated by national security reasons, especially in times of war or domestic upheaval.

For more information, see News propaganda .
Disinformation From Wikipedia:
Disinformation is false information spread deliberately to deceive.
This is a subset of misinformation, which also may be unintentional.

The English word disinformation is a loan translation of the Russian dezinformatsiya, derived from the title of a KGB black propaganda department.
Joseph Stalin coined the term, giving it a French-sounding name to claim it had a Western origin.
Russian use began with a "special disinformation office" in 1923.
Disinformation was defined in Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1952) as "false information with the intention to deceive public opinion".
Operation INFEKTION was a Soviet disinformation campaign to influence opinion that the U.S. invented AIDS.
The U.S. did not actively counter disinformation until 1980, when a fake document reported that the U.S. supported apartheid.

The word disinformation did not appear in English dictionaries until the late-1980s.
English use increased in 1986, after revelations that the Reagan Administration engaged in disinformation against Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi.
By 1990 it was pervasive in U.S. politics; and by 2001 referred generally to lying and propaganda.
Contents
1 Etymology and early usage
2 Defections reveal covert operations
3 Post Soviet-era Russian disinformation
4 English language spread
5 Analysis
5.1 Responses from cultural leaders
5.2 Ethics in warfare
6 Research
6.1 Consequences of exposure to disinformation online
6.2 Strategies for spreading disinformation

For more information, see Disinformation .
Violence From Wikipedia:
Violence is "the use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy."
Less conventional definitions are also used, such as the World Health Organization's definition of violence as "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation."

Internationally, violence resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.28 million people in 2013 up from 1.13 million in 1990.
Of the deaths in 2013, roughly 842,000 were attributed to self-harm (suicide), 405,000 to interpersonal violence, and 31,000 to collective violence (war) and legal intervention.
In Africa, out of every 100,000 people, each year an estimated 60.9 die a violent death.
For each single death due to violence, there are dozens of hospitalizations, hundreds of emergency department visits, and thousands of doctors' appointments.
Furthermore, violence often has lifelong consequences for physical and mental health and social functioning and can slow economic and social development.

In 2013, assault by firearm was the leading cause of death due to interpersonal violence, with 180,000 such deaths estimated to have occurred.
The same year, assault by sharp object resulted in roughly 114,000 deaths, with a remaining 110,000 deaths from personal violence being attributed to other causes.

Violence in many forms can be preventable.
There is a strong relationship between levels of violence and modifiable factors in a country such as concentrated (regional) poverty, income and gender inequality, the harmful use of alcohol, and the absence of safe, stable, and nurturing relationships between children and parents.
Strategies addressing the underlying causes of violence can be relatively effective in preventing violence, although mental and physical health and individual responses, personalities, etc. have always been decisive factors in the formation of these behaviors.

Contents
1 Types
1.1 Self-directed violence
1.2 Collective violence
1.3 Warfare
1.4 Interpersonal violence
1.5 Targeted violence
1.6 Everyday violence
2 Factors
2.1 Child-rearing
2.2 Psychology
2.3 Media
2.4 Slow violence
3 Prevention
3.1 Interpersonal violence
3.2 Collective violence
3.3 Criminal justice
3.4 Public health
3.5 Human rights
3.6 Geographical context
4 Epidemiology
4.1 Self-directed violence
4.2 Interpersonal violence
4.3 Collective violence
5 History
5.1 The Better Angels of Our Nature
6 Society and culture
6.1 Economic effects
6.2 Religion

For more information, see Violence .
Domestic violence From Wikipedia:
Domestic violence (also named domestic abuse or family violence) is violence or other abuse by one person against another in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation.
It may be termed intimate partner violence when committed by a spouse or partner in an intimate relationship against the other spouse or partner, and can take place in heterosexual or same-sex relationships, or between former spouses or partners.
Domestic violence can also involve violence against children, parents, or the elderly.
It takes a number of forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, reproductive, and sexual abuse, which can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and to violent physical abuse such as choking, beating, female genital mutilation, and acid throwing that results in disfigurement or death.
Domestic murders include stoning, bride burning, honor killings, and dowry deaths.

Globally, the victims of domestic violence are overwhelmingly women, and women tend to experience more severe forms of violence.
They are also likelier than men to use intimate partner violence in self-defense.
In some countries, domestic violence is often seen as justified, particularly in cases of actual or suspected infidelity on the part of the woman, and is legally permitted.
Research has established that there exists a direct and significant correlation between a country's level of gender equality and rates of domestic violence, where countries with less gender equality experience higher rates of domestic violence.
Domestic violence is among the most underreported crimes worldwide for both men and women.
Due to social stigmas regarding male victimization, men who are victims of domestic violence face an increased likelihood of being overlooked by healthcare providers.

Domestic violence often occurs when the abuser believes that abuse is an entitlement, acceptable, justified, or unlikely to be reported.
It may produce an intergenerational cycle of abuse in children and other family members, who may feel that such violence is acceptable or condoned.
Many people do not recognize themselves as abusers or victims because they may consider their experiences as family conflicts that got out of control.
Awareness, perception, definition and documentation of domestic violence differs widely from country to country.
Domestic violence often happens in the context of forced or child marriage.

In abusive relationships, there may be a cycle of abuse during which tensions rise and an act of violence is committed, followed by a period of reconciliation and calm.
Victims of domestic violence may be trapped in domestic violent situations through isolation, power and control, traumatic bonding to the abuser, cultural acceptance, lack of financial resources, fear, shame, or to protect children.
As a result of abuse, victims may experience physical disabilities, dysregulated aggression, chronic health problems, mental illness, limited finances, and poor ability to create healthy relationships.
Victims may experience severe psychological disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder.
Children who live in a household with violence often show psychological problems from an early age, such as avoidance, hypervigilance to threats, and dysregulated aggression which may contribute to vicarious traumatization.

Contents
1 Etymology and definitions
2 History
3 Forms
3.1 Physical
3.2 Sexual
3.3 Emotional
3.4 Economic
4 Demographics
4.1 Gender differences
4.2 Age groups
4.3 Same-sex relationships
4.4 Underreporting
5 Social influences
5.1 Cultural view
5.2 Religion
5.3 Custom and tradition
5.4 Relation to forced and child marriage
5.5 Legislation
5.6 Ability to leave
5.7 Individual versus family unit rights
5.8 Immigration policies
5.9 Immigrant communities
6 Causes
6.1 Cycles of violence
6.2 Substance abuse
6.3 Biological and psychological
6.4 Social theories
6.5 Nonsubordination theory
7 Effects
7.1 On children
7.2 Physical
7.3 HIV/AIDS
7.4 Psychological
7.5 Financial
7.6 On responders
8 Management
9 Prevention
10 By country
11 Legal terminology

For more information, see Domestic violence .
Terrorism From Wikipedia:
Terrorism is, in the broadest sense, the use of intentional violence, generally against civilians, for political purposes.
It is used in this regard primarily to refer to violence during peacetime or in context of war against non-combatants (mostly civilians and neutral military personnel).
The terms "terrorist" and "terrorism" originated during the French Revolution of the late 18th century but gained mainstream popularity in the 1970s in news reports and books covering the conflicts in Northern Ireland, the Basque Country and Palestine.
The increased use of suicide attacks from the 1980s onwards was typified by the September 11 attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C. in 2001.

There are different definitions of terrorism.
Terrorism is a charged term. It is often used with the connotation of something that is "morally wrong".
Governments and non-state groups use the term to abuse or denounce opposing groups.
Varied political organizations have been accused of using terrorism to achieve their objectives.
These organizations include right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries and ruling governments.
Legislation declaring terrorism a crime has been adopted in many states.
When terrorism is perpetrated by nation-states it is not considered terrorism by the state conducting it, making legality a largely grey-area issue.
There is no consensus as to whether or not terrorism should be regarded as a war crime.

The Global Terrorism Database, maintained by the University of Maryland, College Park, has recorded more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, resulting in at least 140,000 deaths between 2000 and 2014.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Historical background
3 Modern definitions
3.1 State terrorism
3.2 United Nations
3.3 U.S. law
3.4 Media spectacle
3.5 Political violence
3.6 Pejorative use
4 History
5 Infographics
6 Types
7 Causes and motivations
7.1 Choice of terrorism as a tactic
7.2 Causes motivating terrorism
7.3 Personal and social factors
8 Democracy and domestic terrorism
9 Religious terrorism
10 Perpetrators
10.1 Non-state groups
10.2 State sponsors
10.3 State terrorism
11 Connection with tourism
12 Funding
13 Tactics
14 Responses
14.1 Response in the United States
14.2 Terrorism research
14.3 International agreements
15 Mass media
16 Outcome of terrorist groups
17 Databases

For more information, see Terrorism .
War From Wikipedia:
War is a state of armed conflict between states, governments, societies and informal paramilitary groups, such as mercenaries, insurgents and militias.
It is generally characterized by extreme violence, aggression, destruction, and mortality, using regular or irregular military forces.
Warfare refers to the common activities and characteristics of types of war, or of wars in general.
Total war is warfare that is not restricted to purely legitimate military targets, and can result in massive civilian or other non-combatant suffering and casualties.

The scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology (/ˌpɒləˈmɒlədʒi/ POL-ə-MOL-ə-jee), from the Greek polemos, meaning "war", and -logy, meaning "the study of".

While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, others argue it is a result of specific socio-cultural, economic or ecological circumstances.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Types of warfare
3 History
4 Effects
4.1 Military and civilian casualties in recent human history
4.2 Largest by death toll
4.3 On military personnel
4.4 On civilians
4.5 Economic
4.6 Artistic
5 Aims
5.1 Definition
5.2 Classification
6 Limiting and stopping
7 Theories of motivation
7.1 Psychoanalytic
7.2 Evolutionary
7.3 Economic
7.4 Marxist
7.5 Demographic
7.6 Rationalist
7.7 Political science
8 Ethics

For more information, see War .

For more information, see
Social issue .

The aim here is to present a general picture of the changes brought about on the Earth by humans, i.e. a comparison of what the Earth is like at present, compared with what it would be like in the absence of humans.

From Wikipedia:
Human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment includes changes to biophysical environments and ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural resources caused directly or indirectly by humans, including global warming, environmental degradation (such as ocean acidification), mass extinction and biodiversity loss, ecological crisis, and ecological collapse.
Modifying the environment to fit the needs of society is causing severe effects, which become worse as the problem of human overpopulation continues.
Some human activities that cause damage (either directly or indirectly) to the environment on a global scale include human reproduction, overconsumption, overexploitation, pollution, and deforestation, to name but a few.
Some of the problems, including global warming and biodiversity loss pose an existential risk to the human race, and overpopulation causes those problems.

The term anthropogenic designates an effect or object resulting from human activity.
The term was first used in the technical sense by Russian geologist Alexey Pavlov, and it was first used in English by British ecologist Arthur Tansley in reference to human influences on climax plant communities.
The atmospheric scientist Paul Crutzen introduced the term "Anthropocene" in the mid-1970s.
The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution emissions that are produced from human activity since the start of the Agricultural Revolution but also applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment.
Many of the actions taken by humans that contribute to a heated environment stem from the burning of fossil fuel from a variety of sources, such as: electricity, cars, planes, space heating, manufacturing, or the destruction of forests.

Contents
1 Rapid Growth of Human Population
2 Overconsumption
3 Technology
4 Fishing and Farming
4.1 Fishing
4.2 Irrigation
4.3 Agricultural land loss and soil erosion
4.4 Meat production
4.5 Palm oil
5 Introductions and invasive species
6 Energy industry
6.1 Biodiesel
6.2 Coal mining and burning
6.3 Electricity generation
6.4 Nuclear power
6.5 Oil shale industry
6.6 Petroleum
6.7 Reservoirs
6.8 Wind power
7 Light pollution
8 Smoking
9 Manufactured products
9.1 Cleaning agents
9.2 Nanotechnology
9.3 Leather
9.4 Paint
9.5 Paper
9.6 Plastics
9.7 Pesticides
9.8 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products
10 Mining
11 Transport
11.1 Aviation
11.2 Roads
11.3 Shipping
12 Military
12.1 War
13 Environmental degradation effects
14 Mass extinction, defaunation and decline in biodiversity
14.1 Death of coral reefs
14.2 Decline in amphibian populations
14.3 Wastewater
15 Global warming
16 Habitat destruction
17 Land degradation
17.1 Desertification
18 Ocean acidification
19 Ozone depletion
20 Water degradation
21 Disruption of the nitrogen cycle
22 Effects on human health
22.1 Effects of global warming on human health
22.2 Effects of pollution on human health

Global warming From Wikipedia:
Global warming is the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system.
It is a major aspect of climate change, and has been demonstrated by direct temperature measurements and by measurements of various effects of the warming.
The terms global warming and climate change are often used interchangeably.
However, speaking more accurately, global warming denotes the mainly human-caused increase in global surface temperatures and its projected continuation, but climate change includes both global warming and its effects, such as changes in precipitation.
While there have been prehistoric periods of global warming, many observed changes since the mid-20th century have been unprecedented over decades to millennia.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report concluded, "It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century."
The largest human influence has been the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.
Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C (0.5 to 3.1 °F) in a moderate scenario, or as much as 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in an extreme scenario, depending on the rate of future greenhouse gas emissions and on climate feedback effects.
These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing.

The effects of global warming include rising sea levels, regional changes in precipitation, more frequent extreme weather events such as heat waves, and expansion of deserts.
Ocean acidification is also caused by greenhouse gas emissions and is commonly grouped with these effects even though it is not driven by temperature.
Surface temperature increases are greatest in the Arctic, which has contributed to the retreat of glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice.
Overall, higher temperatures bring more rain and snowfall, but for some regions droughts and wildfires increase instead.
Climate change threatens to diminish crop yields, harming food security, and rising sea levels may flood coastal infrastructure and force the abandonment of many coastal cities.
Environmental impacts include the extinction or relocation of many species as their ecosystems change, most immediately the environments of coral reefs, mountains, and the Arctic.

Societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its effects, and possibly climate engineering.
Countries work together on climate change under the umbrella of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which has near-universal membership.
The ultimate goal of the convention is to "prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system".
Although the parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required[19] and that global warming should be limited to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) in the Paris Agreement, the Earth's average surface temperature has already increased by about half this threshold and current pledges by countries to cut emissions are inadequate to limit future warming.

Contents
1 Observed temperature changes
1.1 Regional trends
1.2 Short-term slowdowns and surges
2 Physical drivers of recent climate change
2.1 Greenhouse gases
2.2 Land use change
2.3 Aerosols and soot
2.4 Minor forcings: the Sun and short-lived greenhouse gases
3 Climate change feedback
4 Models and projections
5 Effects
5.1 Physical environment
5.2 Biosphere
5.3 Humans
6 Responses
6.1 Mitigation
6.2 Adaptation
6.3 Climate engineering
7 Society and culture
7.1 Political response
7.2 Scientific discussion
7.3 Public opinion and disputes
8 History of the science
9 Terminology

For more information, see Global warming .
Environmental degradation From Wikipedia:
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution.
It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.
As indicated by the I=PAT equation, environmental impact (I) or degradation is caused by the combination of an already very large and increasing human population (P), continually increasing economic growth or per capita affluence (A), and the application of resource-depleting and polluting technology (T).

Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change of the United Nations.
The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as "the reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs".
Environmental degradation comes in many types. When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted, the environment is degraded.
Efforts to counteract this problem include environmental protection and environmental resources management.

There are many example of Environmental degradation throughout the world.
A current example is the Amazon burning down.
It makes up 60% of all rainforests.
It is the earth's lungs and with it getting destroyed is posing a huge threat to the environment and the whole world.
The effects of the deforestation will pose major impacts on the world around us.
The constant cutting down of trees is getting rid of our oxygen supply as well as the absorption of co2.
With the continuation of deforestation we will have less available oxygen in the world which could be a detrimental problem for human health.
An alternate issue that results from this is the overconsumption and waste of the paper products that come from those trees.
The waste it typically produces does not get recycled, therefore, immense amount of waste is created.
An additional harmful result from this is the degradation of the soil.
The constant deforestation causes the soil to become less nutrient which will make it harder to be used again.

Contents
1 Biodiversity loss
2 Water degradation
2.1 Climate change and temperature
2.2 Climate change and precipitation
2.3 Population growth
2.4 Agriculture
2.5 Water management

For more information, see Environmental degradation .
Ocean acidification From Wikipedia:
Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
Seawater is slightly basic (meaning pH > 7), and ocean acidification involves a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions (pH < 7).
An estimated 30–40% of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans, rivers and lakes.
To achieve chemical equilibrium, some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid.
Some of the resulting carbonic acid molecules dissociate into a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion, thus increasing ocean acidity (H+ ion concentration).
Between 1751 and 1996, surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14, representing an increase of almost 30% in H+ ion concentration in the world's oceans.
Earth System Models project that, by around 2008, ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and, in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes, could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean beginning as early as 2100.

Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms and causing coral bleaching.
By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions, the additional carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions.
Ocean alkalinity (roughly equal to [HCO3−] + 2[CO32−]) is not changed by the process, or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution.
This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available may make it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms, such as coral and some plankton, to form biogenic calcium carbonate, and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution.
Ongoing acidification of the oceans may threaten future food chains linked with the oceans.
As members of the InterAcademy Panel, 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050, global CO2 emissions be reduced by at least 50% compared to the 1990 level.

While ongoing ocean acidification is at least partially anthropogenic in origin, it has occurred previously in Earth's history, and the resulting ecological collapse in the oceans had long-lasting effects for global carbon cycling and climate.
The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), which occurred approximately 56 million years ago when massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere, and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins.

Ocean acidification has been compared to anthropogenic climate change and called the "evil twin of global warming" and "the other CO2 problem".
Freshwater bodies also appear to be acidifying, although this is a more complex and less obvious phenomenon.

Contents
1 Carbon cycle
2 Acidification
2.1 Rate
3 Calcification
3.1 Overview
3.2 Mechanism
3.3 Saturation state
4 Possible impacts
4.1 Impacts on oceanic calcifying organisms
4.2 Effect on reef fish
4.3 Other biological impacts
4.4 Ecosystem impacts amplified by ocean warming and deoxygenation
4.5 Nonbiological impacts
4.6 Impact on human industry
4.7 Impact on indigenous peoples
5 Possible responses
5.1 Reducing CO2 emissions
5.2 Climate engineering
6 Gallery

For more information, see Ocean acidification .
Holocene extinction From Wikipedia:
The Holocene extinction, otherwise referred to as the sixth mass extinction or Anthropocene extinction, is an ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch (with the more recent time sometimes called Anthropocene) as a result of human activity.
This large number of extinctions spans numerous families of plants and animals, including mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and arthropods.
With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforests, as well as other areas, the vast majority of these extinctions are thought to be undocumented, as the species are undiscovered at the time of their extinction, or no one has yet discovered their extinction.
The current rate of extinction of species is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times higher than natural background rates.

The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna, starting at the end of the last Ice Age.
Megafauna outside of the African continent, which did not evolve alongside humans, proved highly sensitive to the introduction of new predation, and many died out shortly after early humans began spreading and hunting across the Earth (many African species have also gone extinct in the Holocene, but —with few exceptions— megafauna of the mainland was largely unaffected until a few hundred years ago).
These extinctions, occurring near the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary, are sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event.

The most popular theory is that human overhunting of species added to existing stress conditions as the extinction coincides with human emergence.
Although there is debate regarding how much human predation affected their decline, certain population declines have been directly correlated with human activity, such as the extinction events of New Zealand and Hawaii.
Aside from humans, climate change may have been a driving factor in the megafaunal extinctions, especially at the end of the Pleistocene.

Ecologically, humanity has been noted as an unprecedented "global superpredator" that consistently preys on the adults of other apex predators, and has worldwide effects on food webs.
There have been extinctions of species on every land mass and in every ocean: there are many famous examples within Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia, North and South America, and on smaller islands.
Overall, the Holocene extinction can be linked to the human impact on the environment.
The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century, with meat consumption, overfishing, ocean acidification and the decline in amphibian populations being a few broader examples of a cosmopolitan decline in biodiversity.
Human overpopulation (and continued population growth) along with overconsumption are considered to be the primary drivers of this rapid decline.

The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, published by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, posits that roughly one million species of plants and animals face extinction caused by anthropogenic impacts.

Contents
1 Definitions
1.1 Anthropocene
2 Influences
2.1 Human activity
2.1.1 Activities contributing to extinctions
2.1.2 Apex predator
2.1.3 Agriculture and climate change
2.1.4 Islands
2.1.4.1 Australia
2.1.4.2 Madagascar
2.1.4.3 New Zealand
2.1.5 Americas
2.1.6 Afroeurasia
2.2 Climate change
2.2.1 Megafaunal extinction
2.3 Disease
3 Defaunation
3.1 History
3.2 Recent extinction
3.3 Habitat destruction
3.4 Overexploitation
3.5 Disease
3.6 Mitigation

For more information, see Holocene extinction .
Biodiversity loss From Wikipedia:
Biodiversity loss is the extinction of species (plant or animal) worldwide, and also the local reduction or loss of species in a certain habitat.

The latter phenomenon can be temporary or permanent, depending on whether the environmental degradation that leads to the loss is reversible through ecological restoration/ecological resilience or effectively permanent (e.g. through land loss).
Global extinction has so far been proven to be irreversible.

Even though permanent global species loss is a more dramatic phenomenon than regional changes in species composition, even minor changes from a healthy stable state can have dramatic influence on the food web and the food chain insofar as reductions in only one species can adversely affect the entire chain (coextinction), leading to an overall reduction in biodiversity, possible alternative stable states of an ecosystem notwithstanding.
Ecological effects of biodiversity are usually counteracted by its loss.
Reduced biodiversity in particular leads to reduced ecosystem services and eventually poses an immediate danger for food security, also for humankind.

Contents
1 Loss rate
2 Factors
3 Insect loss
4 Birds loss
5 Food and agriculture

For more information, see Biodiversity loss .
Pollution From Wikipedia:
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change.
Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light.
Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.
Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. In 2015, pollution killed 9 million people in the world.

Major forms of pollution include: Air pollution, light pollution, littering, noise pollution, plastic pollution, soil contamination, radioactive contamination, thermal pollution, visual pollution, water pollution.

Contents
1 History
2 Urban pollution
3 Forms of pollution
4 Pollutants
5 Cost of pollution
6 Socially optimal level of pollution
7 Sources and causes
8 Effects
8.1 Human health
8.2 Environment
8.3 Environmental health information
8.4 School outcomes
8.5 Worker productivity
9 Regulation and monitoring
10 Pollution control
10.1 Practices
10.2 Pollution control devices
11 Perspectives
12 Greenhouse gases and global warming
13 Most polluting industries
14 World’s worst polluted places

For more information, see Pollution .
Deforestation From Wikipedia:
Deforestation, clearance, clearcutting or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land which is then converted to a non-forest use.
Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use.
The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests.
About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests.

Deforestation can occur for several reasons: trees can be cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel (sometimes in the form of charcoal or timber), while cleared land can be used as pasture for livestock and plantation.
The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in habitat damage, biodiversity loss, and aridity.
It has adverse impacts on biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Deforestation has also been used in war to deprive the enemy of vital resources and cover for its forces.
Modern examples of this were the use of Agent Orange by the British military in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency and by the United States military in Vietnam during the Vietnam War.
As of 2005, net deforestation rates had ceased to increase in countries with a per capita GDP of at least US$4,600.
Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland.

Disregard of ascribed value, lax forest management, and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that lead to large-scale deforestation.
In many countries, deforestation—both naturally occurring and human-induced—is an ongoing issue.
Deforestation causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations, as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record.
More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical forests.

Between 2000 and 2012, 2.3 million square kilometres (890,000 sq mi) of forests around the world were cut down.
As a result of deforestation, only 6.2 million square kilometres (2.4 million square miles) remain of the original 16 million square kilometres (6 million square miles) of tropical rainforest that formerly covered the Earth.
An area the size of a football pitch is cleared from the Amazon rainforest every minute, with 136 million acres (55 million hectares) of rainforest cleared for animal agriculture overall.

More than 3.6 million hectares of virgin tropical forest was lost in 2018.

Contents
1 Causes
2 Environmental effects
2.1 Atmospheric
2.2 Hydrological
2.3 Soil
2.4 Biodiversity
3 Economic impact
4 Forest transition theory
5 Historical causes
5.1 Prehistory
5.2 Pre-industrial history
6 Industrial era
6.1 Rates of deforestation
6.1.1 Regions
7 Control
7.1 Reducing emissions
7.1.1 Payments for conserving forests
7.2 Land rights
7.3 Farming
7.4 Monitoring deforestation
7.5 Forest management
7.5.1 Sustainable practices
7.6 Reforestation
7.7 Forest plantations
8 Military context
9 Public health context

For more information, see Deforestation .
Overexploitation From Wikipedia:
Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns.
Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource.
The term applies to natural resources such as: wild medicinal plants, grazing pastures, game animals, fish stocks, forests, and water aquifers.

In ecology, overexploitation describes one of the five main activities threatening global biodiversity.
Ecologists use the term to describe populations that are harvested at a rate that is unsustainable, given their natural rates of mortality and capacities for reproduction.
This can result in extinction at the population level and even extinction of whole species.
In conservation biology the term is usually used in the context of human economic activity that involves the taking of biological resources, or organisms, in larger numbers than their populations can withstand.
The term is also used and defined somewhat differently in fisheries, hydrology and natural resource management.

Overexploitation can lead to resource destruction, including extinctions.
However it is also possible for overexploitation to be sustainable, as discussed below in the section on fisheries.
In the context of fishing, the term overfishing can be used instead of overexploitation, as can overgrazing in stock management, overlogging in forest management, overdrafting in aquifer management, and endangered species in species monitoring.
Overexploitation is not an activity limited to humans.
Introduced predators and herbivores, for example, can overexploit native flora and fauna.

Contents
1 History
2 Overview
3 Tragedy of the commons
4 Fisheries
5 Water resources
6 Forest resources
7 Biodiversity
8 Endangered species
9 Cascade effects

For more information, see Overexploitation .
Human overpopulation From Wikipedia:
Human overpopulation (or population overshoot) is when there are too many people for the environment to sustain (with food, drinkable water, breathable air, etc.).
In more scientific terms, there is overshoot when the ecological footprint of a human population in a geographical area exceeds that place's carrying capacity, damaging the environment faster than nature can repair it, potentially leading to an ecological and societal collapse.
Overpopulation could apply to the population of a specific region, or to world population as a whole.

Overpopulation can result from an increase in births, a decline in mortality rates, an increase in immigration, or an unsustainable biome and depletion of resources.
It is possible for very sparsely populated areas to be overpopulated if the area has a meager or non-existent capability to sustain life (e.g. a desert).

Advocates of population moderation cite issues like exceeding the Earth's carrying capacity, global warming, potential or imminent ecological collapse, impact on quality of life, and risk of mass starvation or even extinction as a basis to argue for population decline.

A more controversial definition of overpopulation, as advocated by Paul Ehrlich, is a situation where a population is in the process of depleting non-renewable resources.
Under this definition, changes in lifestyle could cause an overpopulated area to no longer be overpopulated without any reduction in population, or vice versa.

Scientists suggest that the overall human impact on the environment, due to overpopulation, overconsumption, pollution, and proliferation of technology, has pushed the planet into a new geological epoch known as the Anthropocene.

Contents
1 Current population dynamics, and cause for concern
2 History
2.1 History of concern
2.2 History of population growth
2.3 Causes
2.3.1 Population as a function of food availability
3 Dangers and effects
3.1 Poverty, and infant and child mortality
3.2 Environmental impacts
3.2.1 Biodiversity loss and the Holocene extinction
3.2.2 Pollution
3.2.3 Potential ecological collapse
3.3 Depletion and destruction of resources
3.3.1 Fresh water
3.3.1.1 Water deficits
3.3.2 Land
3.3.3 Fossil fuels
3.3.4 Food
3.3.4.1 Global perspective on food supply
3.4 Africa
3.5 Asia
3.5.1 Japan
3.6 Warfare and conflict over dwindling resources
3.6.1 Criticism of this hypothesis
3.7 Other
4 Further dynamics
4.1 Demographic transition
4.2 Carrying capacity
5 Projections of population growth
5.1 Urban growth
6 Proposed solutions and mitigation measures
6.1 Reducing overpopulation
6.1.1 Education and empowerment
6.1.2 Birth regulations
6.2 Extraterrestrial settlement
6.3 Urbanization
7 Graph gallery

For more information, see Human overpopulation .
Overconsumption From Wikipedia:
Overconsumption is a situation where resource use has outpaced the sustainable capacity of the ecosystem.
A prolonged pattern of overconsumption leads to environmental degradation and the eventual loss of resource bases.

Generally, the discussion of overconsumption parallels that of human overpopulation; that is the more people, the more consumption of raw materials takes place to sustain their lives.
However, humanity's overall impact on the planet is affected by many factors besides the raw number of people.
Their lifestyle (including overall affluence and resource utilization) and the pollution they generate (including carbon footprint) are equally important.
Currently, the inhabitants of the developed nations of the world consume resources at a rate almost 32 times greater than those of the developing world, who make up the majority of the human population (7.4 billion people).

However, the developing world is a growing market for consumption.
These nations are quickly gaining more purchasing power and it is expected that the Global South, which includes cities in Asia, America and Africa, will account for 56% of consumption growth by 2030.
This means that consumption rates will plateau for the developed nations and shift more into these developing countries.

The theory of overpopulation reflects issues of carrying capacity without taking into account per capita consumption, by which developing nations are evaluated to consume more than their land can support.
The United Nations estimate that world population will reach 9.8 billion in the year 2050 and 11.2 in 2100.
This growth will be highly concentrated in the developing nations which also poses issues with inequality of consumption.
The nations that will come into consumer dominance must abstain from abusing certain forms of consumption, especially energy consumption of CO2.
Green parties and the ecology movement often argue that consumption per person, or ecological footprint, is typically lower in poorer than in richer nations.

Contents
1 Causes
2 Effects
2.1 Economic growth
3 Footprint
4 Counteractions

For more information, see Overconsumption .
Environmental impacts of technology From Wikipedia:
The applications of technology often result in unavoidable and unexpected environmental impacts, which according to the I = PAT equation is measured as resource use or pollution generated per unit GDP.
Environmental impacts caused by the application of technology are often perceived as unavoidable for several reasons.
First, given that the purpose of many technologies is to exploit, control, or otherwise “improve” upon nature for the perceived benefit of humanity while at the same time the myriad of processes in nature have been optimized and are continually adjusted by evolution, any disturbance of these natural processes by technology is likely to result in negative environmental consequences.
Second, the conservation of mass principle and the first law of thermodynamics (i.e., conservation of energy) dictate that whenever material resources or energy are moved around or manipulated by technology, environmental consequences are inescapable.
Third, according to the second law of thermodynamics, order can be increased within a system (such as the human economy) only by increasing disorder or entropy outside the system (i.e., the environment).
Thus, technologies can create “order” in the human economy (i.e., order as manifested in buildings, factories, transportation networks, communication systems, etc.) only at the expense of increasing “disorder” in the environment.
According to a number of studies, increased entropy is likely to be correlated to negative environmental impacts.

For more information, see Human impact on the environment - Technology .
Environmental impact of agriculture From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of agriculture is the effect that different farming practices have on the ecosystems around them, and how those effects can be traced back to those practices.
The environmental impact of agriculture varies based on the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world.
Ultimately, the environmental impact depends on the production practices of the system used by farmers.
The connection between emissions into the environment and the farming system is indirect, as it also depends on other climate variables such as rainfall and temperature.

There are two types of indicators of environmental impact: "means-based", which is based on the farmer's production methods, and "effect-based", which is the impact that farming methods have on the farming system or on emissions to the environment.
An example of a means-based indicator would be the quality of groundwater, that is effected by the amount of nitrogen applied to the soil.
An indicator reflecting the loss of nitrate to groundwater would be effect-based.
The means-based evaluation looks at farmers' practices of agriculture, and the effect-based evaluation considers the actual effects of the agricultural system.
For example, the means-based analysis might look at pesticides and fertilization methods that farmers are using, and effect-based analysis would consider how much CO2 is being emitted or what the Nitrogen content of the soil is.

The environmental impact of agriculture involves a variety of factors from the soil, to water, the air, animal and soil variety, people, plants, and the food itself. Some of the environmental issues that are related to agriculture are climate change, deforestation, genetic engineering, irrigation problems, pollutants, soil degradation, and waste.

Contents
1 Negatives
1.1 Climate change
1.2 Deforestation
1.3 Genetic engineering
1.4 Irrigation
1.5 Pollutants
1.6 Soil degradation
1.7 Waste
1.8 Issues by region
2 Sustainable agriculture
2.1 Conservation tillage

For more information, see Environmental impact of agriculture .
Environmental impact of fishing From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of fishing includes issues such as the availability of fish, overfishing, fisheries, and fisheries management; as well as the impact of fishing on other elements of the environment, such as by-catch.
These issues are part of marine conservation, and are addressed in fisheries science programs.
According to a 2019 FAO report, global production of fish, crustaceans, molluscs and other aquatic animals has continued to grow and reached 172.6 million tonnes in 2017, with an increase of 4.1 percent compared with 2016.
There is a growing gap between the supply of fish and demand, due in part to world population growth.

The journal Science published a four-year study in November 2006, which predicted that, at prevailing trends, the world would run out of wild-caught seafood in 2048.
The scientists stated that the decline was a result of overfishing, pollution and other environmental factors that were reducing the population of fisheries at the same time as their ecosystems were being annihilated.
Many countries, such as Tonga, the United States, Australia and Bahamas, and international management bodies have taken steps to appropriately manage marine resources.

Reefs are also being destroyed by overfishing because of the huge nets that are dragged along the ocean floor while trawling.
Many corals are being destroyed and as a consequence, the ecological niche of many species is at stake.

Contents
1 Effects on Marine habitat
2 Overfishing
3 Ecological disruption
4 Bycatch
5 Shark finning and culling
5.1 Shark finning
5.2 Shark culling
6 Marine debris
7 Importance of Recreational Fishing Impacts
8 Countermeasures
8.1 Fisheries management and fish farming
8.2 Marine reserves
8.3 Catch-and-release

For more information, see Environmental impact of fishing .
Environmental impact of irrigation From Wikipedia:
Irrigation may effect water systems if you do not use water properly. If you use water in a friendly manner nothing will happen.

The environmental impacts of irrigation relate to the changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as a result of irrigation and the effects on natural and social conditions in river basins and downstream of an irrigation scheme.
The impacts stem from the altered hydrological conditions caused by the installation and operation of the irrigation scheme.

Contents
1 Direct effects
2 Indirect Effects
3 Adverse impacts
3.1 Reduced river flow
3.2 Increased groundwater recharge, waterlogging, soil salinity
3.3 Reduced downstream river water quality
3.4 Affected downstream water users
3.5 Lost land use opportunities
3.6 Groundwater mining with wells, land subsidence
4 Simulation and prediction
4.1 Case studies
4.2 Reduced downstream drainage and groundwater quality
5 Mitigation of adverse effects
5.1 Delayed environmental impacts
5.2 Potential benefits outweigh the potential disadvantages

For more information, see Environmental impact of irrigation .
Agricultural expansion From Wikipedia:
Agricultural expansion describes the growth of agricultural land (arable land, pastures, etc.) in the 21st century.
This expansion is often explained as a direct consequence of the global increase in required food and energy from the human overpopulation, with an estimated expectation of 10 to 11 billion humans on Earth by end of this century.
It is foreseen that most of the world's non-agrarian ecosystems (terrestrial and aquatic) will be affected adversely, from habitat loss, land degradation, and other problems. The intensified food (and biofuel) production will in particular affect the tropical regions.

Most modern agriculture relies on intensive methods.
Further expansion of the predominant farming types that rest on a small number of highly productive crops has led to a significant loss of biodiversity on a global scale already.
In the light of the already occurring and potential massive ecological effects, the need for sustainable practices is more urgent than ever.

The FAO predicts that global arable land use will continue to grow from a 1.58 billion hectares (3.9×109 acres) in 2014 to 1.66 billion hectares (4.1×109 acres) in 2050, with most of this growth projected to result from developing countries.
At the same time, arable land use in developed countries is likely to continue its decline.

A well-known example of already ongoing agricultural expansion is the proliferation of palm oil production areas or the land conversion/deforestation for soy bean production in South America.
Today's land grabbing activities are often a consequence of the strive for agricultural land by growing economies.

For more information, see Agricultural expansion .
Environmental impact of meat production From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of meat production varies because of the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world.
All agricultural practices have been found to have a variety of effects on the environment.
Some of the environmental effects that have been associated with meat production are pollution through fossil fuel usage, animal methane, effluent waste, and water and land consumption.
Meat is obtained through a variety of methods, including organic farming, free range farming, intensive livestock production, subsistence agriculture, hunting, and fishing.

Meat is considered one of the prime factors contributing to the current sixth mass extinction.
The 2019 IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services found that industrial agriculture and overfishing are the primary drivers of the extinction crisis, with the meat and dairy industries having a substantial impact.
The 2006 report Livestock's Long Shadow, released by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, states that "the livestock sector is a major stressor on many ecosystems and on the planet as a whole.
Globally it is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases (GHG) and one of the leading causal factors in the loss of biodiversity, and in developed and emerging countries it is perhaps the leading source of water pollution."
(In this and much other FAO usage, but not always elsewhere, poultry are included as "livestock".)
A 2017 study published in the journal Carbon Balance and Management found animal agriculture's global methane emissions are 11% higher than previous estimates based on data from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Some fraction of these effects is assignable to non-meat components of the livestock sector such as the wool, egg and dairy industries, and to the livestock used for tillage.
Livestock have been estimated to provide power for tillage of as much as half of the world's cropland.
A July 2018 study in Science asserts that meat consumption will increase as the result of human population growth and rising individual incomes, which will increase carbon emissions and further reduce biodiversity.

On August 8, 2019, the IPCC released a summary of the 2019 special report which asserted that a shift towards plant-based diets would help to mitigate and adapt to climate change.
According to a 2018 study in the journal Nature, a significant reduction in meat consumption will be "essential" to mitigate climate change, especially as the human population increases by a projected 2.3 billion by the middle of the century.
In November 2017, 15,364 world scientists signed a Warning to Humanity calling for, among other things, drastically diminishing our per capita consumption of meat.
A similar shift to meat-free diets appears also as the only safe option to feed a growing population without further deforestation, and for different yields scenarios.

Contents
1 Consumption and production trends
2 Grazing and land use
3 Water use
4 Effects on aquatic ecosystems
5 Greenhouse gas emissions
6 Effect of air pollution on human respiratory health
7 Energy consumption
8 Animal waste
9 Effects on wildlife
10 Effects on antibiotic resistance
11 Beneficial environmental effects

For more information, see Environmental impact of meat production .
Environmental impact of the energy industry From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of the energy industry is diverse.
Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia.
Initially it was with the use of fire for light, heat, cooking and for safety, and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million years.
In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources.

Rapidly advancing technologies can potentially achieve a transition of energy generation, water and waste management, and food production towards better environmental and energy usage practices using methods of systems ecology and industrial ecology.

Contents
1 Issues
1.1 Climate change
1.2 Biofuel use
1.2.1 Bio-diesel
1.2.2 Firewood
1.3 Fossil fuel use
1.3.1 Coal
1.3.2 Petroleum
1.3.3 Gas
1.4 Electricity generation
1.5 Reservoirs
1.6 Nuclear power
1.7 Wind power
1.8 Solar power
1.9 Geothermal power
2 Mitigation
2.1 Energy conservation
2.2 Energy policy

For more information, see Environmental impact of the energy industry .
Solar power - Environmental impacts From Wikipedia:
Unlike fossil fuel based technologies, solar power does not lead to any harmful emissions during operation, but the production of the panels leads to some amount of pollution.

Greenhouse gases
The life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of solar power are in the range of 22 to 46 gram (g) per kilowatt-hour (kWh) depending on if solar thermal or solar PV is being analyzed, respectively.
With this potentially being decreased to 15 g/kWh in the future.
For comparison (of weighted averages), a combined cycle gas-fired power plant emits some 400–599 g/kWh, an oil-fired power plant 893 g/kWh, a coal-fired power plant 915–994 g/kWh or with carbon capture and storage some 200 g/kWh, and a geothermal high-temp. power plant 91–122 g/kWh.
The life cycle emission intensity of hydro, wind and nuclear power are lower than solar's as of 2011 as published by the IPCC, and discussed in the article Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources.
Similar to all energy sources were their total life cycle emissions primarily lay in the construction and transportation phase, the switch to low carbon power in the manufacturing and transportation of solar devices would further reduce carbon emissions.
BP Solar owns two factories built by Solarex (one in Maryland, the other in Virginia) in which all of the energy used to manufacture solar panels is produced by solar panels.
A 1-kilowatt system eliminates the burning of approximately 170 pounds of coal, 300 pounds of carbon dioxide from being released into the atmosphere, and saves up to 105 gallons of water consumption monthly.

For more information, see Solar power - Environmental impacts .
Geothermal power - Environmental impact From Wikipedia:
Fluids drawn from the deep earth carry a mixture of gases, notably carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), and radon (Rn).
If released, these pollutants contribute to global warming, acid rain, radiation, and noxious smells.

Existing geothermal electric stations, that fall within the 50th percentile of all total life cycle emissions studies reviewed by the IPCC, produce on average 45 kg of CO2 equivalent emissions per megawatt-hour of generated electricity (kg CO2eq/MW·h). For comparison, a coal-fired power plant emits 1,001 kg of CO2 per megawatt-hour when not coupled with carbon capture and storage (CCS).

Stations that experience high levels of acids and volatile chemicals are usually equipped with emission-control systems to reduce the exhaust.
Geothermal stations could theoretically inject these gases back into the earth, as a form of carbon capture and storage.

In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources may hold in solution trace amounts of toxic chemicals, such as mercury, arsenic, boron, antimony, and salt.
These chemicals come out of solution as the water cools, and can cause environmental damage if released.
The modern practice of injecting geothermal fluids back into the Earth to stimulate production has the side benefit of reducing this environmental risk.

Station construction can adversely affect land stability.
Subsidence has occurred in the Wairakei field in New Zealand.
Enhanced geothermal systems can trigger earthquakes due to water injection.
The project in Basel, Switzerland was suspended because more than 10,000 seismic events measuring up to 3.4 on the Richter Scale occurred over the first 6 days of water injection.
The risk of geothermal drilling leading to uplift has been experienced in Staufen im Breisgau.

Geothermal has minimal land and freshwater requirements.
Geothermal stations use 404 square meters per GW·h versus 3,632 and 1,335 square meters for coal facilities and wind farms respectively.
They use 20 litres of freshwater per MW·h versus over 1000 litres per MW·h for nuclear, coal, or oil.

Geothermal power stations can also disrupt the natural cycles of geysers.
For example, the Beowawe, Nevada geysers, which were uncapped geothermal wells, stopped erupting due to the development of the dual-flash station.

For more information, see Geothermal power - Environmental impact .
Environmental impact of biodiesel From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of biodiesel is diverse.

Contents
1 Greenhouse gas emissions
2 Pollution
3 Biodegradation
4 Biodegradation in Aquatic Environments
5 Carbonyl Emissions

For more information, see Environmental impact of biodiesel .
Environmental impact of the coal industry From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of the coal industry includes issues such as land use, waste management, water and air pollution, caused by the coal mining, processing and the use of its products.
In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually, including fly ash, bottom ash, and flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals.
Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO2 in the atmosphere.

There are severe health effects caused by burning coal.
According to a report by the World Health Organization in 2008, coal particulates pollution are estimated to shorten approximately 10,000 lives annually worldwide.
A 2004 study commissioned by environmental groups, but contested by the US EPA, concluded that coal burning costs 24,000 lives a year in the United States.
More recently, an academic study estimated that the premature deaths from coal related air pollution was about 52,000.
When compared to electricity produced from natural gas via hydraulic fracturing, coal electricity is 10–100 times more toxic, largely due to the amount of particulate matter emitted during combustion.
When coal is compared to solar photovoltaic generation, the latter could save 51,999 American lives per year if solar were to replace coal generation in the U.S.
Due to the decline of jobs related to coal mining a study found that approximately one American suffers a premature death from coal pollution for every job remaining in coal mining.

In addition, the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one, although work related coal deaths has declined substantially as safety measures have been enacted and underground mining has given up market share to surface mining.
Underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse and gas explosions.
Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions.
In the United States, an average of 26 coal miners per year died in the decade 2005–2014.

Contents
1 Land use management
1.1 Impact to land and surroundings
2 Water management
2.1 River water pollution
2.2 Waste management
2.3 Wildlife
3 Air pollution
3.1 Air emissions
3.2 Mercury emissions
3.3 Annual excess mortality and morbidity
3.4 Economic costs
4 Greenhouse gas emissions
5 Radiation exposure
6 Dangers to miners

For more information, see Environmental impact of the coal industry .
Environmental impact of electricity generation From Wikipedia:
Electric power systems consist of generation plants of different energy sources, transmission networks, and distribution lines.
Each of these components can have environmental impacts at multiple stages of their development and use including in their construction, during the generation of electricity, and in their decommissioning and disposal.
We can split these impacts into operational impacts (fuel sourcing, global atmospheric and localized pollution) and construction impacts (manufacturing, installation, decommissioning, and disposal).
This page looks exclusively at the operational environmental impact of electricity generation.
The page is organized by energy source and includes impacts such as water usage, emissions, local pollution, and wildlife displacement.

More detailed information on electricity generation impacts for specific technologies and on other environmental impacts of electric power systems in general can be found under the Category:Environmental impact of the energy industry.

Contents
1 Water usage
2 Fossil fuels
3 Switching from fuels to electricity
4 Nuclear power
5 Renewable energy
5.1 Hydroelectricity
5.1.1 Tidal
5.1.1.1 Tidal turbines
5.1.1.2 Tidal barrage
5.2 Biomass
5.3 Wind power
5.3.1 Onshore wind
5.3.2 Offshore wind
5.3.2.1 Monopile foundation
5.3.2.2 Tripod fixed bottom
5.3.2.3 Gravity foundation
5.3.2.4 Gravity tripod
5.3.2.5 Floating structure
5.4 Geothermal power
5.5 Solar power
5.6 Concentrated solar power
6 Negawatt power

For more information, see Environmental impact of electricity generation .
Environmental impact of nuclear power From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of nuclear power results from the nuclear fuel cycle, operation, and the effects of nuclear accidents.

The greenhouse gas emissions from nuclear fission power are much smaller than those associated with coal, oil and gas, and the routine health risks are much smaller than those associated with coal.
However, there is a "catastrophic risk" potential if containment fails, which in nuclear reactors can be brought about by overheated fuels melting and releasing large quantities of fission products into the environment.
This potential risk could wipe out the benefits.
The most long-lived radioactive wastes, including spent nuclear fuel, must be contained and isolated from the environment for a long period of time.
On the other side, spent nuclear fuel could be reused, yielding even more energy, and reducing the amount of waste to be contained.
The public has been made sensitive to these risks and there has been considerable public opposition to nuclear power.

The 1979 Three Mile Island accident and 1986 Chernobyl disaster, along with high construction costs, also compounded by delays resulting from a steady schedule of demonstrations, injunctions and political actions, caused by the anti-nuclear opposition, ended the rapid growth of global nuclear power capacity.
A release of radioactive materials followed the 2011 Japanese tsunami which damaged the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, resulting in hydrogen gas explosions and partial meltdowns classified as a Level 7 event.
The large-scale release of radioactivity resulted in people being evacuated from a 20 km exclusion zone set up around the power plant, similar to the 30 km radius Chernobyl Exclusion Zone still in effect.
But published works suggest that the radioactivity levels have lowered enough to now have only a limited impact on wildlife.
In Japan, in July 2016, Fukushima Prefecture announced that the number of evacuees following the Great East Japan earthquake events, had fallen below 90,000, in part following the lifting of evacuation orders issued in some municipalities.

Contents
1 Waste streams
2 Radioactive waste
2.1 High-level waste
2.2 Other waste
3 Power plant emission
3.1 Radioactive gases and effluents
3.1.1 Tritium
3.1.2 Uranium mining
3.2 Risk of cancer
3.3 Comparison to coal-fired generation
3.4 Contrast of radioactive accident emissions with industrial emissions
3.5 Waste heat
4 Water consumption and risks
5 Greenhouse gas emissions
6 Environmental effects of accidents and attacks
6.1 Fukushima disaster
6.2 Chernobyl disaster
6.3 SL-1 meltdown
6.4 Attacks and sabotage
7 Natural disasters
8 Sustainability
9 Decommissioning

For more information, see Environmental impact of nuclear power .
Environmental impact of the oil shale industry From Wikipedia:
Environmental impact of the oil shale industry includes the consideration of issues such as land use, waste management, and water and air pollution caused by the extraction and processing of oil shale.
Surface mining of oil shale deposits causes the usual environmental impacts of open-pit mining.
In addition, the combustion and thermal processing generate waste material, which must be disposed of, and harmful atmospheric emissions, including carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas.
Experimental in-situ conversion processes and carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce some of these concerns in future, but may raise others, such as the pollution of groundwater.

Contents
1 Surface mining and retorting
1.1 Land use and waste management
1.2 Water management
1.3 Air pollution management
1.4 Greenhouse gas emissions
2 In-situ processing

For more information, see Environmental impact of the oil shale industry .
Environmental impact of the petroleum industry From Wikipedia:
Petroleum is one of the main sources of energy in the World.
Petroleum and its by-products are used to fuel various forms of transportation, industry and domestic electricity use.
Petroleum is also used to manufacture plastics which provides products essential for daily life. Also, petroleum has helped create many products like cosmetics, tyres (rubber) pesticides etc.
Over the years there have been increased concerns over the environmental effects of the petroleum industry.
The environmental impacts of petroleum are mainly negative.
This is due to the toxicity of petroleum which contributes to air pollution, acid rain, and various illnesses in humans.
Petroleum also fuels climate change, due to the increased greenhouse gas emissions in its extraction, refinement, transport and consumption phases.

Contents
1 Issues
1.1 Toxicity
1.2 Exhaust
1.2.1 Acid rain
1.3 Climate change
1.4 Oil spills
1.5 Volatile organic compounds
1.6 Waste oil
2 Mitigation
2.1 Conservation and phasing out
2.2 Substitution of other energy sources
2.3 Use of biomass instead of petroleum
2.4 Safety measures

For more information, see Environmental impact of the petroleum industry .
Environmental impact of reservoirs From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of reservoirs comes under ever-increasing scrutiny as the global demand for water and energy increases and the number and size of reservoirs increases.

Dams and reservoirs can be used to supply drinking water, generate hydroelectric power, increase the water supply for irrigation, provide recreational opportunities, and flood control.
In 1960 the construction of Llyn Celyn and the flooding of Capel Celyn provoked political uproar which continues to this day.
More recently, the construction of Three Gorges Dam and other similar projects throughout Asia, Africa and Latin America have generated considerable environmental and political debate.

Contents
1 Upstream impacts
1.1 Fragmentation of river ecosystems
1.2 Reservoir sedimentation
2 Impact below dam
2.1 Riverline and coastal erosion
2.2 Water temperature
2.3 Natural ecosystems destroyed by agriculture
2.4 Effects on flood-dependent ecology and agriculture
2.5 Potential for disaster
2.6 Flood control
3 Effects beyond the reservoir
3.1 Effects on humans
3.2 Greenhouse gases

For more information, see Environmental impact of reservoirs .
Environmental impact of wind power From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of wind power when compared to that of fossil fuel power, is relatively minor.
Most of the wind turbines contain SF6 gas that is 23500 times more efficient greenhouse gas than CO2.
SF6 remains in atmosphere at least 1000 years. Turbines are leaking small amount of gas in normal operation.
https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-49567197.
Compared with other low carbon power sources, wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated.
According to the IPCC, in assessments of the life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources, wind turbines have a median value of between 15 and 11 (gCO2eq/kWh) depending on whether off- or onshore turbines are being assessed.

Onshore wind farms can have a significant impact on the landscape, as typically they need to be spread over more land than other power stations and need to be built in wild and rural areas, which can lead to "industrialization of the countryside" and habitat loss.
Conflicts arise especially in scenic and culturally-important landscapes.
Siting restrictions (such as setbacks) may be implemented to limit the impact.
Land between the turbines and access roads can still be used for farming and grazing.

Habitat loss and fragmentation are the greatest impact of wind farms on wildlife.
Wind turbines, like many other human activities and buildings, also increase bat and bird deaths.
A summary of the existing field studies compiled in 2010 from the National Wind Coordinating Collaborative identified fewer than 14 and typically less than 4 bird deaths per installed megawatt per year, but a wider variation in the number of bat deaths.
Like other investigations, it concluded that some species (e.g. migrating bats and songbirds) are known to be harmed more than others and that factors such as turbine siting can be important.
However, many details as well as the overall impact from the growing number of turbines remain unclear.
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory maintains a database of the scientific literature on the subject.

Wind turbines generate some noise.
At a residential distance of 300 metres (980 ft) this may be around 45 dB.
At 1.5 km (1 mi) distance most wind turbines become inaudible.
Loud or persistent noise increases stress, and stress causes diseases.
Wind turbines do not affect human health from noise when properly placed.
However, when improperly sited, data from the monitoring of two groups of growing geese revealed substantially lower body weights and higher concentrations of a stress hormone in the blood of the first group of geese who were situated 50 meters away compared to a second group which was at a distance of 500 meters from the turbine.
Most of the wind turbines contain SF6 gas that is 23500 times more efficient greenhouse gas than CO2.
SF6 remains in atmosphere at least 1000 years.
Turbines are leaking small amount of gas in normal operation.
https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-49567197

Contents
1 Basic operational considerations
1.1 Net energy gain
1.2 Pollution and effects on the grid
1.2.1 Pollution costs
1.2.2 Findings when connected to the grid
1.3 Rare-earth use
1.4 Landfill use
2 Ecology
2.1 Land use
2.1.1 Livestock
2.2 Impact on wildlife
2.2.1 Birds
2.2.2 Bats
2.3 Weather and climate change
3 Impacts on people
3.1 Aesthetics
3.2 Wind turbine syndrome
3.3 Safety
4 Offshore

For more information, see Environmental impact of wind power .
Ecological light pollution From Wikipedia:
Ecological light pollution is the effect of artificial light on individual organisms and on the structure of ecosystems as a whole.

The effect that artificial light has upon organisms is highly variable, and ranges from beneficial (e.g. increased ability for predator species to observe prey) to immediately fatal (e.g. moths that are attracted to incandescent lanterns and are killed by the heat).
It is also possible for light at night to be both beneficial and damaging for a species.
As an example, humans benefit from using indoor artificial light to extend the time available for work and play, but the light disrupts the human circadian rhythm, and the resulting stress is damaging to health.

Through the various effects that light pollution has on individual species, the ecology of regions is affected.
In the case where two species occupy an identical niche, the population frequency of each species may be changed by the introduction of artificial light if they are not equally affected by light at night.
For example, some species of spiders avoid lit areas, while other species are happy to build their spider web directly on a lamp post.
Since lamp posts attract many flying insects, the spiders that don't mind light gain an advantage over the spiders that avoid it, and consequently become more common.
Changes in these species frequencies can then have knock-on effects, as the interactions between these species and others in the ecosystem are affected and food webs are altered.
These ripple effects can eventually affect even diurnal plants and animals.
As an example, changes in the activity of night active insects can change the survival rates of night blooming plants, which may provide food or shelter for diurnal animals.

The introduction of artificial light at night is one of the most drastic anthropogenic changes to the Earth, comparable to toxic pollution, land use change, and climate change due to increases in the concentration of green house gases.

Contents
1 Natural light cycles
1.1 Diurnal (solar) cycle
1.2 Seasonal (solar) cycles
1.3 Lunar cycles
1.4 Cloud coverage
2 Effects of light pollution on individual organisms
2.1 Insects
2.2 Birds
2.3 Humans
2.4 Turtles
2.5 Zooplankton
3 Effects of different wavelengths
4 Polarized light pollution

For more information, see Ecological light pollution .
Environmental impact of cleaning agents From Wikipedia:
Environmental impacts of cleaning agents are the consequences of chemical compounds in cleaning products.
Cleaning agents can be bioactive with consequences ranging from mild to severe.
Developmental and endocrine disruptors have been linked to cleaning agents.
Green cleaning is an approach to redress or address the problems associated with traditional cleaning agents.

Contents
1 Alkylphenol ethoxylates and alkylphenols
1.1 Government regulation
2 Environmentally benign alternatives
2.1 2-Butoxylethanol, ethylene glycol monobutyl ether (EGBE)
3 Chemical impact on the environment

For more information, see Environmental impact of cleaning agents .
Impact of nanotechnology - Environmental impact From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of nanotechnology is the possible effects that the use of nanotechnological materials and devices will have on the environment.
As nanotechnology is an emerging field, there is debate regarding to what extent industrial and commercial use of nanomaterials will affect organisms and ecosystems.

Nanotechnology's environmental impact can be split into two aspects: the potential for nanotechnological innovations to help improve the environment, and the possibly novel type of pollution that nanotechnological materials might cause if released into the environment.

Environmental applications
Main article: Green nanotechnology
Green nanotechnology refers to the use of nanotechnology to enhance the environmental sustainability of processes producing negative externalities.
It also refers to the use of the products of nanotechnology to enhance sustainability.
It includes making green nano-products and using nano-products in support of sustainability.
Green nanotechnology has been described as the development of clean technologies, "to minimize potential environmental and human health risks associated with the manufacture and use of nanotechnology products, and to encourage replacement of existing products with new nano-products that are more environmentally friendly throughout their lifecycle."

Green nanotechnology has two goals: producing nanomaterials and products without harming the environment or human health, and producing nano-products that provide solutions to environmental problems.
It uses existing principles of green chemistry and green engineering to make nanomaterials and nano-products without toxic ingredients, at low temperatures using less energy and renewable inputs wherever possible, and using lifecycle thinking in all design and engineering stages.

Pollution
Main article: Nanomaterials pollution
Nanopollution is a generic name for all waste generated by nanodevices or during the nanomaterials manufacturing process.
Nanowaste is mainly the group of particles that are released into the environment, or the particles that are thrown away when still on their products.

For more information, see Impact of nanotechnology - Environmental impact .
Environmental impact of paint From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of paint is diverse.
Traditional painting materials and processes can have harmful effects on the environment, including those from the use of lead and other additives.
Measures can be taken to reduce environmental impact, including accurately estimating paint quantities so waste is minimized, and use of environmentally preferred paints, coating, painting accessories, and techniques.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency guidelines and Green Star standards can be applied.

Contents
1 Issues
1.1 Low-VOC and other environmentally preferred paints
1.2 Antifouling paint
1.3 Heavy metals
2 Mitigation

For more information, see Environmental impact of paint .
Environmental impact of paper From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of paper is significant, which has led to changes in industry and behaviour at both business and personal levels.
With the use of modern technology such as the printing press and the highly mechanized harvesting of wood, disposable paper became a relatively cheap commodity, which led to a high level of consumption and waste.
The rise in global environmental issues such as air and water pollution, climate change, overflowing landfills and clearcutting have all lead to increased government regulations.
There is now a trend towards sustainability in the pulp and paper industry as it moves to reduce clear cutting, water use, greenhouse gas emissions, fossil fuel consumption and clean up its impacts on local water supplies and air pollution.

According to a Canadian citizen's organization, "People need paper products and we need sustainable, environmentally safe production."

Environmental product declarations or product scorecards are available to collect and evaluate the environmental and social performance of paper products, such as the Paper Calculator, Environmental Paper Assessment Tool (EPAT), or Paper Profile.

Both the U.S. and Canada generate interactive maps of environmental indicators which show pollution emissions of individual facilities.

Contents
1 Issues
1.1 Air pollution
1.2 Water pollution
1.3 Paper waste
1.4 Wood pulping process
1.5 Chlorine and chlorine-based materials
1.6 Sulfur, hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide
1.7 Greenhouse gas emissions
1.8 Non-renewable resources
2 Mitigation
2.1 Sustainable forest management
2.1.1 Forest certification
2.2 Pulp bleaching
2.3 Recycling
2.4 Recycled paper and paper mills
2.5 Regulations
2.5.1 United States
2.5.1.1 Air and water pollution
2.5.1.2 Forest management
2.5.2 Canada
2.5.3 International
2.6 Mechanical pulp mills
3 Inks

For more information, see Environmental impact of paper .
Plastic - Environmental effects From Wikipedia:
Most plastics are durable and degrade very slowly, as their chemical structure renders them resistant to many natural processes of degradation.
There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century.
By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since the 1950s.
Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3 billion tons of plastic of which 6.3 billion tons is waste, with a recycling rate of only 9%.
Much of this material may persist for centuries or longer, given the demonstrated persistence of structurally similar natural materials such as amber.

The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic in the sea than all other countries combined.
The rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow River, Hai River, Nile, Ganges, Pearl River, Amur, Niger, and the Mekong "transport 88–95% of the global [plastics] load into the sea."

The presence of plastics, particularly microplastics, within the food chain is increasing.
In the 1960s microplastics were observed in the guts of seabirds, and since then have been found in increasing concentrations.
The long-term effects of plastic in the food chain are poorly understood.
In 2009, it was estimated that 10% of modern waste was plastic, although estimates vary according to region.
Meanwhile, 50–80% of debris in marine areas is plastic.

Prior to the Montreal Protocol, CFCs were commonly used in the manufacture of polystyrene, and as such the production of polystyrene contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer.
...
9 Environmental effects
9.1 Climate change
9.2 Production of plastics
9.3 Incineration of plastics
9.4 Pyrolytic disposal
9.5 Decomposition of plastics
9.6 Recycling

For more information, see Plastic - Environmental effects .
Environmental impact of pesticides From Wikipedia:
The impact of pesticides consists of the effects of pesticides on non-target species.
Pesticides are chemical preparations used to kill fungal or animal pests.
Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields.
Runoff can carry pesticides into aquatic environments while wind can carry them to other fields, grazing areas, human settlements and undeveloped areas, potentially affecting other species.
Other problems emerge from poor production, transport and storage practices.
Over time, repeated application increases pest resistance, while its effects on other species can facilitate the pest's resurgence.

Each pesticide or pesticide class comes with a specific set of environmental concerns.
Such undesirable effects have led many pesticides to be banned, while regulations have limited and/or reduced the use of others.
Over time, pesticides have generally become less persistent and more species-specific, reducing their environmental footprint.
In addition the amounts of pesticides applied per hectare have declined, in some cases by 99%.
The global spread of pesticide use, including the use of older/obsolete pesticides that have been banned in some jurisdictions, has increased overall.

Contents
1 Agriculture and the environment
2 History
3 Specific pesticide effects
4 Air
5 Water
5.1 United States regulations
5.2 United Kingdom regulations
5.3 European Union regulations
6 Soil
7 Effect on plants
8 Effect on animals
8.1 Birds
8.2 Aquatic life
8.3 Amphibians
8.4 Humans
9 Persistent organic pollutants
10 Pest resistance
11 Pest rebound and secondary pest outbreaks
12 Eliminating pesticides
13 References
14 External links

For more information, see Environmental impact of pesticides .
Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products From Wikipedia:
The environmental effect of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is currently being widely investigated.
PPCPs include substances used by individuals for personal health or cosmetic reasons and the products used by agribusiness to boost growth or health of livestock.
More than twenty million tons of PPCPs are produced every year.
PPCPs have been detected in water bodies throughout the world.
The effects of these chemicals on humans and the environment are not yet known, but to date there is no scientific evidence that they affect human health.

Further research is needed to evaluate the risks of toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulation.
PPCPs encompass environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants (EPPPs) and are one type of persistent organic pollutants.
They are not removed from wastewater by conventional methods.
The European Union has declared pharmaceutical residues with the potential of contamination of water and soil to be "priority substances".

Contents
1 Overview
1.1 Safe disposal
2 Types
3 Routes into the environment
4 Presence in the environment
5 Effects
5.1 Human
5.2 Recommendations
5.3 Environmental
6 Current research
6.1 Pharmacoenvironmentology
6.2 Ecopharmacovigilance
6.3 Ecopharmacology
6.4 Fate of pharmaceuticals in sewage treatment plants
6.5 Regulation
7 Examples
7.1 Blister packs
7.2 Nail polish remover
8 Pending questions

For more information, see Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products .
Environmental impact of mining From Wikipedia:
Environmental impacts of mining can occur at local, regional, and global scales through direct and indirect mining practices.
Impacts can result in erosion, sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, or the contamination of soil, groundwater, and surface water by the chemicals emitted from mining processes.
These processes also have an impact on the atmosphere from the emissions of carbon which have effect on the quality of human health and biodiversity.
Some mining methods may have such significant environmental and public health effects that mining companies in some countries are required to follow strict environmental and rehabilitation codes to ensure that the mined area returns to its original state.

Contents
1 Erosion
2 Sinkholes
3 Water pollution
3.1 Acid rock drainage
3.2 Heavy metals
4 Effect on biodiversity
5 Aquatic organisms
5.1 Microorganisms
5.2 Macroorganisms
6 Terrestrial organisms
6.1 Vegetation
6.2 Animals
6.3 Microorganisms
7 Waste
7.1 Tailings
7.2 Spoil tip
8 Effects of mine pollution on humans
9 Coal mining
10 Deforestation
11 Oil shale
12 Mountaintop removal mining
13 Sand mining
14 Mitigation
15 Specific sites
16 Film and literature

For more information, see Environmental impact of mining .
Environmental impact of transport From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of transport is significant because transport is a major user of energy, and burns most of the world's petroleum.
This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide.
Within the transport sector, road transport is the largest contributor to global warming.

Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle's emission.
However, this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles, and increased use of each vehicle (an effect known as the Jevons paradox).
Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles have been considerably studied.
Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes, causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport, and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency.

The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) in the United States.
An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation—and in some regions, the proportion is even higher.
Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S., accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990.

Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands.
By reducing transportation emissions globally, it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth's air quality, acid rain, smog and climate change.

The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern.
A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth.

As listed above direct impacts such as noise pollution and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment, along with indirect impacts.
The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage.
For example, particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine, are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition.
Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts.
The synergetic consequences of transport activities.
They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem.
Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors.
15% of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector.

Contents
1 Sectors
1.1 Aviation
1.2 Road transport
1.2.1 Cars
1.2.2 Buses
1.3 Rail
1.3.1 Railroads' Impacts on the Environment
1.4 Shipping
2 Mitigation of environmental impact
2.1 Road-rail parallel layout
2.2 Involvement
3 Impact of e-commerce

For more information, see Environmental impact of transport .
Environmental impact of aviation From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat, noise, particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming.
Airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, lead, and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere.

Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines, the rapid growth of air travel in the past years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation.
From 1992 to 2005, passenger kilometers increased 5.2 percent per year.
In the European Union, greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 percent between 1990 and 2006.

Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes, engines, aerodynamics and flight operations, there is no end in sight, even many decades out, to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight, due to projected continual growth in air travel.
This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme.
In addition, due to low or non-existent taxes on aviation fuel, air travel enjoys a competitive advantage over other transportation modes due to lower fares.
Unless market constraints are put in place, growth in aviation emissions will result in the sector's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global CO2 emissions budget by mid-century, if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 °C or less.

There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account.

Contents 1 Climate change
1.1 Mechanisms and cumulative effects of aviation on climate
1.1.1 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
1.1.2 Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
1.1.3 Water vapor (H2O), and contrails
1.1.4 Particulates
1.2 Greenhouse gas emissions per passenger kilometre
1.2.1 Averaged emissions
1.2.1.1 Europe
1.2.1.2 Finland
1.2.1.3 USA
1.2.1.4 International
1.2.1.5 British Airways
1.2.2 Emissions by passenger class, and effects of seating configuration
1.3 Total climate effects
1.4 Future emission levels
1.4.1 Continual increases in travel and freight
1.5 Scope for improvement
1.5.1 Aircraft efficiency
1.5.2 Operations efficiency
1.5.3 Alternative fuels
1.5.4 Electric aircraft
1.5.5 Offsetting
1.6 Reducing air travel
1.6.1 Personal choices and social pressure
1.6.2 Business and professional choices
1.6.3 Ending incentives to fly—frequent flyer programs
1.6.4 Potential for governmental constraints on demand
1.7 International regulation of air travel GHG emissions
1.7.1 Kyoto Protocol 2005
1.7.2 Approaches toward emissions trading
1.7.3 International Civil Aviation Organization agreement 2016
1.8 Effects of climate change on aviation
1.8.1 Increased turbulence
2 Noise
3 Water pollution
4 Air quality
4.1 Particulate emissions
4.2 Lead emissions
5 Radiation exposure
6 Land use for infrastructure

For more information, see Environmental impact of aviation .
Road ecology From Wikipedia:
Road ecology is the study of the ecological effects (both positive and negative) of roads and highways (public roads).
These effects may include local effects, such as on noise, water pollution, habitat destruction/disturbance and local air quality; and wider effects such as habitat fragmentation, ecosystem degradation, and climate change from vehicle emissions.

The design, construction and management of roads, parking and other related facilities as well as the design and regulation of vehicles can change their effect.
Roads are known to cause significant damage to forests, prairies, streams and wetlands.
Besides the direct habitat loss due to the road itself, and the roadkill of animal species, roads alter water-flow patterns, increase noise, water, and air pollution, create disturbance that alters the species composition of nearby vegetation thereby reducing habitat for local native animals, and act as barriers to animal movements.
Roads are a form of linear infrastructure intrusion that has some effects similar to infrastructure such as railroads, power lines, and canals, particularly in tropical forests.

Road ecology is practiced as a field of inquiry by a variety of ecologists, biologists, hydrologists, engineers, and other scientists.
There are several global centers for the study of road ecology:
1) The Road Ecology Center at the University of California, Davis, which was the first of its kind in the world;
2) the Centro Brasileiro de Estudos em Ecologia de Estradas at the Federal University of Lavras, Brazil;
3) The Center for Transportation and the Environment, North Carolina State University;
and 4) the Road Ecology Program at the Western Transportation Institute, Montana State University.
There are also several important global conferences for road ecology research:
1) Infra-Eco Network Europe (IENE), which is international, but focused primarily on Europe;
2) International Conference on Ecology and Transportation (ICOET), which is also global in scope, but primarily focused on the US;
3) Australasian Network for Ecology & Transportation (ANET), which focuses on the Australasian (sub)continent; and 4) a potential Southern African road ecology conference, being considered by the Endangered Wildlife Trust.

Contents
1 Air quality
1.1 Negative effects
1.2 Positive effects
2 Hydrology
2.1 De-icing chemicals
3 Noise
3.1 Negative effects
3.2 Positive effects
4 Effects on wildlife
4.1 Habitat fragmentation
4.2 Amphibians and reptiles
4.3 Birds
4.4 Facilitation of poaching of flora and fauna
5 Mitigation efforts
5.1 Awareness
5.2 Road permeability
5.3 Habitat construction and planting
5.4 Recycling

For more information, see Road ecology .
Environmental impact of shipping From Wikipedia:
The environmental impact of shipping includes air pollution, water pollution, acoustic, and oil pollution.
Ships are responsible for more than 18 percent of some air pollutants.

It also includes greenhouse gas emissions. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) estimates that carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2% of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise 50 to 250 percent by 2050 if no action is taken.

There is a perception that cargo transport by ship is low in air pollutants, because for equal weight and distance it is the most efficient transport method, according to shipping researcher Alice Bows-Larkin.
This is particularly true in comparison to air freight.
However, because sea shipment accounts for far more annual tonnage and the distances are often large, shipping's emissions are globally substantial.
A difficulty is that the year-on-year increasing amount shipping overwhelms gains in efficiency, such as from slow-steaming or the use of kites.
The growth in tonne-kilometers of sea shipment has averaged 4 percent yearly since the 1990s.
And it has grown by a factor of 5 since the 1970s.
There are now over 100,000 transport ships at sea, of which about 6,000 are large container ships.

The fact that shipping enjoys substantial tax privileges has contributed to the growing emissions.

Contents
1 Ballast water
2 Sound pollution
3 Wildlife collisions
4 Atmospheric pollution
4.1 Conventional pollutants
4.1.1 Localized air pollution
4.2 Greenhouse gas pollutants
5 Oil spills
6 Wastewater
7 Solid waste
8 Bilge water
9 International regulation
10 Issues by region
10.1 Asia
10.2 European Union
10.3 United Kingdom
10.4 United States

For more information, see Environmental impact of shipping .
Environmental impact of war From Wikipedia:
Study of the environmental impact of war focuses on the modernization of warfare and its increasing effects on the environment.
Scorched earth methods have been used for much of recorded history.
However, the methods of modern warfare cause far greater devastation on the environment.
The progression of warfare from chemical weapons to nuclear weapons has increasingly created stress on ecosystems and the environment.
Specific examples of the environmental impact of war include: World War I, World War II, the Vietnam War, the Rwandan Civil War, the Kosovo War and the Gulf War.

Contents
1 Historical events
1.1 Vietnam, Rwanda, and the environment
1.2 World War II
1.3 Gulf War
2 Environmental hazards
2.1 Unexploded ordnance
2.2 Agent Orange
2.3 Testing of nuclear armaments
2.4 Strontium-90
2.5 Depleted uranium munitions
2.6 Fossil fuel use
2.7 Intentional flooding
3 Specific cases
4 Militarism and the environment
4.1 Greenhouse gas emissions and pollution
4.2 Land and resource use
4.3 Activist responses
4.4 The military's positive effects on the environment
5 War and environmental law

For more information, see Environmental impact of war .
Ecological collapse From Wikipedia:
Ecological collapse refers to a situation where an ecosystem suffers a drastic, possibly permanent, reduction in carrying capacity for all organisms, often resulting in mass extinction.
Usually, an ecological collapse is precipitated by a disastrous event occurring on a short time scale.
Ecological collapse can be considered as a consequence of ecosystem collapse on the biotic elements that depended on the original ecosystem.

Ecosystems have the ability to rebound from a disruptive agent.
The difference between collapse or a gentle rebound is determined by two factors—the toxicity of the introduced element and the resiliency of the original ecosystem.

Through natural selection the planet's species have continuously adapted to change through variation in their biological composition and distribution.
Mathematically it can be demonstrated that greater numbers of different biological factors tend to dampen fluctuations in each of the individual factors.

Scientists can predict tipping points for ecological collapse.
The most frequently used model for predicting food web collapse is called R50, which is a reliable measurement model for food web robustness.

Contents
1 Causes and examples
2 Rainforest collapse
2.1 Carboniferous period
3 Today
4 Consequences

For more information, see Ecological collapse .
Ecological extinction From Wikipedia:
Ecological extinction is "the reduction of a species to such low abundance that, although it is still present in the community, it no longer interacts significantly with other species".

Ecological extinction stands out because it is the interaction ecology of a species that is important for conservation work.
They state that "unless the species interacts significantly with other species in the community (e.g. it is an important predator, competitor, symbiont, mutualist, or prey) its loss may result in little to no adjustment to the abundance and population structure of other species".

This view stems from the neutral model of communities that assumes there is little to no interaction within species unless otherwise proven.

Estes, Duggins, and Rathburn (1989) recognize two other distinct types of extinction:

- Global extinction is defined as "the ubiquitous disappearance of a species".
- Local extinction is characterized by "the disappearance of a species from part of its natural range".

Contents
1 Keystone species
2 Examples
3 Invasive species
4 Modeling ecological extinction
5 Climate change
6 Implications for conservation policy

For more information, see Ecological extinction .
Environmental issues with coral reefs From Wikipedia:
Human impact on coral reefs is significant. Coral reefs are dying around the world.
Damaging activities include coral mining, pollution (organic and non-organic), overfishing, blast fishing, the digging of canals and access into islands and bays.
Other dangers include disease, destructive fishing practices and warming oceans.
Factors that affect coral reefs include the ocean's role as a carbon dioxide sink, atmospheric changes, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, viruses, impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs, pollutants, algal blooms and others.
Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas.
Climate change, such as warming temperatures, causes coral bleaching, which if severe kills the coral.

In 2008, a worldwide study estimated that 19% of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost, and that a further 17% is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10–20 years.
Only 46% of the world's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health and about 60% of the world's reefs may be at risk due to destructive, human-related activities. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia, where 80% of reefs are endangered.
By the 2030s, 90% of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change; by 2050, it is predicted that all coral reefs will be in danger.

Contents
1 Issues
1.1 Competition
1.2 Predation
1.3 Fishing practices
1.4 Marine pollution
1.5 Marine debris
1.6 Dredging
1.7 Sunscreen
1.8 Climate change
1.9 Ocean acidification
1.10 Disease
1.11 Recreational diving
1.12 Other issues
2 Threatened species
3 Issues by region
3.1 Australia
3.2 Southeast Asia
3.3 Caribbean
3.4 Pacific

For more information, see Environmental issues with coral reefs .
Decline in amphibian populations From Wikipedia:
The decline in amphibian populations is an ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide.
Since the 1980s, decreases in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized extinctions, have been observed in locations all over the world.
These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity, and several causes are believed to be involved, including disease, habitat destruction and modification, exploitation, pollution, pesticide use, introduced species, and ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B).
However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research.
Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000–45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation.

Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s, awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s.
By 1993, more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline.
Today, the phenomenon of declining amphibian populations affects thousands of species in all types of ecosystems and is thus recognized as one of the most severe examples of the Holocene extinction, with severe implications for global biodiversity.

Contents
1 Background
2 Initial skepticism
3 Potential causes
3.1 Habitat modification
3.2 Habitat fragmentation
3.3 Pollution and chemical contaminants
3.4 Ozone depletion, ultraviolet radiation and cloud cover
3.5 Disease
3.5.1 Trematodes
3.5.2 Chytridiomycosis
3.6 Introduced predators
3.7 Increased noise levels
4 Symptoms of stressed populations
5 Conservation measures

For more information, see Decline in amphibian populations .
Tipping points in the climate system From Wikipedia:
A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system.
Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both.
For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger.
Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.

Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about climate change in the modern era.
Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system.
Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.

Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements.
Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise.
These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries.
Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.

Contents
1 Definition
2 Tipping points for global temperature
2.1 Runaway greenhouse effect
3 Tipping elements
3.1 Large scale tipping elements
3.2 Regional tipping elements
4 Cascading tipping points
5 Early warning signals
6 Changes in the Arctic
7 Tipping point effects

For more information, see Tipping points in the climate system .
Habitat destruction From Wikipedia:
Habitat destruction is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species.
In this process, the organisms that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed reducing biodiversity.
Habitat destruction by human activity is mainly for the purpose of harvesting natural resources for industrial production and urbanization.
Clearing habitats for agriculture is the principal cause of habitat destruction.
Other important causes of habitat destruction include mining, logging, trawling, and urban sprawl.
Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the primary cause of species extinction worldwide.
It is a process of natural environmental change that may be caused by habitat fragmentation, geological processes, climate change or by human activities such as the introduction of invasive species, ecosystem nutrient depletion, and other human activities.

The terms habitat loss and habitat reduction are also used in a wider sense, including loss of habitat from other factors, such as water and noise pollution.

Contents
1 Impacts on organisms
2 Geography
3 Ecosystems
4 Natural causes
5 Human causes
5.1 Global warming
6 Drivers
7 Impact on human population
8 Outlook
9 Solutions

For more information, see Habitat destruction .
Land degradation From Wikipedia:
Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land.
It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.
Natural hazards are excluded as a cause; however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires.

This is considered to be an important topic of the 21st century due to the implications land degradation has upon agricultural productivity, the environment, and its effects on food security.
It is estimated that up to 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.

Contents
1 Measures
2 Different types
3 Causes
4 Causes
5 Sensitivity and resilience
6 Climate change

For more information, see Land degradation .
Desertification From Wikipedia:
Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands involving loss of biological productivity caused by natural processes or induced by human activities.
It is caused by a variety of factors, such as through climate change (particularly the current global warming) and through the overexploitation of soil through human activity.
When deserts appear automatically over the natural course of a planet's life cycle, then it can be called a natural phenomenon; however, when deserts emerge due to the rampant and unchecked depletion of nutrients in soil that are essential for it to remain arable, then a virtual "soil death" can be spoken of, which traces its cause back to human overexploitation.
Desertification is a significant global ecological and environmental problem with far reaching consequences on socio-economic and political conditions.

Contents
1 Definitions of words
2 History
3 Areas affected
4 Effects
4.1 Sand and dust storms
4.2 Food security
4.3 Vegetation patterning
5 Causes
6 Poverty
7 Countermeasures
7.1 Managed grazing

For more information, see Desertification .
Ozone depletion From Wikipedia:
Ozone depletion consists of two related events observed since the late 1970s: a steady lowering of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's atmosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions.
The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole.
There are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to these stratospheric events.

In 2019, NASA announced the "ozone hole" was the smallest ever since it was first discovered in 1982.

The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is manufactured chemicals, especially manufactured halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants and foam-blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by turbulent mixing after being emitted from the surface, mixing much faster than the molecules can settle.
Once in the stratosphere, they release halogen atoms through photodissociation, which catalyze the breakdown of ozone (O3) into oxygen (O2).
Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased.

Ozone depletion and the ozone hole have generated worldwide concern over increased cancer risks and other negative effects.
The ozone layer prevents most harmful UV wavelengths of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere.
These wavelengths cause skin cancer, sunburn and cataracts, which were projected to increase dramatically as a result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants and animals.
These concerns led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which bans the production of CFCs, halons and other ozone-depleting chemicals.

The ban came into effect in 1989. Ozone levels stabilized by the mid-1990s and began to recover in the 2000s.
Recovery is projected to continue over the next century, and the ozone hole is expected to reach pre-1980 levels by around 2075.
The Montreal Protocol is considered the most successful international environmental agreement to date.

Contents
1 Ozone cycle overview
1.1 Compounds in the atmosphere
1.1.1 CFCs and related compounds in the atmosphere
1.2 Computer modeling
2 Ozone hole and its causes
2.1 Interest in ozone layer depletion
3 Consequences of ozone layer depletion
3.1 Increased UV
3.2 Biological effects
3.2.1 Basal and squamous cell carcinomas
3.2.2 Malignant melanoma
3.2.3 Cortical cataracts
3.2.4 Increased tropospheric ozone
3.2.5 Increased production of vitamin D
3.2.6 Effects on animals
3.2.7 Effects on crops
4 Public policy
4.1 ODS requirements in the marine industry
5 Prospects of ozone depletion
6 Research history
6.1 Rowland–Molina hypothesis
6.2 Antarctic ozone hole
6.3 Arctic ozone "mini-hole"
6.4 Tibet ozone hole
6.5 Potential depletion by storm clouds
7 Ozone depletion and global warming
8 Misconceptions
8.1 CFC weight
8.2 Percentage of man-made chlorine
8.3 First observation
8.4 Location of hole
9 World Ozone Day

For more information, see Ozone depletion .
Human impact on the nitrogen cycle From Wikipedia:
Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse. Agricultural and industrial nitrogen (N) inputs to the environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation.
As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs, the global nitrogen cycle (Fig. 1) has been significantly altered over the past century.
Global atmospheric nitrous oxide (N2O) mole fractions have increased from a pre-industrial value of ~270 nmol/mol to ~319 nmol/mol in 2005.
Human activities account for over one-third of N2O emissions, most of which are due to the agricultural sector.
This article is intended to give a brief review of the history of anthropogenic N inputs, and reported impacts of nitrogen inputs on selected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Contents
1 History of anthropogenic nitrogen inputs
2 Impacts of anthropogenic inputs on the nitrogen cycle
2.1 Atmosphere
2.2 Biosphere
2.2.1 Terrestrial ecosystems
2.2.1.1 Impacts on productivity and nutrient cycling
2.2.1.2 Impacts on plant species diversity
2.2.2 Aquatic ecosystems
2.2.2.1 Acidification of freshwaters
2.2.2.2 Eutrophication of marine systems
3 Integration

For more information, see Human impact on the nitrogen cycle .

For more information, see
Human impact on the environment .

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